Electromagnetic Mind control

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Electromagnetic Mind control

Disclaimer: I have serious reservations about posting the article called "Total Population Control" found below.

The first reason is because Andrija Puharich is referred to, and he was an extremely questionable character. He is similar to other dubious types such as Dr. Steven Greer, Ingo Swann, Courtney Brown, Timothy Leary, and Thomas Bearden. You really can't trust these guys.

It seems that some of them are aware that they are spreading disinformation, while others are sincere but are being used as "assets". Or maybe they were really brilliant guys and going down the rabbit hole just screwed them up too much. Sometimes they are sort-of in-the-military, but also sort-of not in-the-military.

Sometimes they are actually being duped and used by nonhuman entities. Andrija Puharich was influenced by such entities. These beings have many names: aliens, spirits, Etherians, Extraterrestrials, etc. I refer to them as the Jinn. Modern humans tend to assume that these guys come from other planets because the entities sometimes pretend that this is the case and also because modern beliefs have been shaped by a philosophy of materialism (the view that everything that actually exists is material or physical) We expect to be able to see "everything real" with our own eyes and can't accept that some entities may exist outside the parameters or dimensions of human sight.

In the case of Andrija Puharich these jinn entities called themselves "The Nine".

The jinn which interact with humans are often shadowy trickster types, and the best approach is to avoid them and distrust any claims they make which can't be duplicated or proven.

The so-called "E.T.'s" mentioned in the article below were undoubtedly jinn and not from other planets. They fit a typical profile of a Jinn character type. For more on the true nature of these entities see thejinn.net .

The second reason is because there is no such thing as a "pendulum expert".



I have reservations about posting this article, but do so because many aspects of it are fascinating and may encourage further investigation. ~~Lydia


Total Population Control

An overview of the ELF, GWEN towers, and HAARP inter-connection.

By Nicholas Jones From http://educate-yourself.org/mc/mctotalcontrol12jul02.shtml

Earth is wrapped in a donut shaped magnetic field. Circular lines of magnetic flux continuously descend into the North Pole and emerge from the South Pole. The Ionosphere, an electromagnetic-wave conductor, 100 kilometers [62 miles] above the earth, consists of a layer of electrically charged particles acting as a shield from solar winds.

Earth Resonant Frequency
Natural waves are created which result from electrical activity in the atmosphere. They are thought to be caused by multiple lightning storms. Collectively, these waves are called 'The Schumann Resonance', with the strongest current registering at 7.8 Hz. These are quasi-standing [scalar], extremely low frequency (ELF) waves that naturally exist in the earth's electromagnetic cavity which is the space between ground and the Ionosphere. These 'earth brainwaves' are identical to the frequency spectrum of our human brainwaves.

[Frequency nomenclature: 1 hertz = 1 cycle per second, 1 Khz = 1000cps, 1 Mhz =1 million cps. Wavelength: A 1 Hertz wave has a wavelength that is 186,000 miles long, A 10 Hz wave is 18,600 miles long, etc. Radio-waves move at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second)]

HAARP
The Creator designed living beings to resonate to the11 natural Schumann Resonance frequency pulsation in order to evolve harmoniously. The Ionosphere is being manipulated by US government scientists using the Alaskan transmitter called HAARP, (High-Frequency Active Auroral Research Program) which sends focused radiated power to heat up sections of the Ionosphere, which bounces power down again. ELF waves produced from HAARP, when targeted on selected areas, can weather-engineer and create mood changes affecting millions of people. The intended wattage is 1,700 billion watts of power.

Geomagnetic Waves & GWEN
Sixty four elements in the ground modulate, with variation, the geomagnetic waves naturally coming from the ground. The earth's natural 'brain rhythm' above is balanced with these. These are the same minerals found in red blood corpuscles. There is a relation between the blood and geomagnetic waves. An imbalance between Schumann and geomagnetic waves disrupts these biorhythms. These natural geomagnetic waves are being replaced by artificially created low frequency (LF) ground waves coming from GWEN Towers.

GWEN (Ground Wave Emergency Network) transmitters placed 200 miles apart across the USA allow specific frequencies to be tailored to the geomagnetic-field strength in each area, allowing the magnetic field to be altered. They operate in the LF range, with transmissions between LF 150 and 175 KHz. They also emit waves from the upper VHF to the lower UHF range of 225 - 400 MHz. The LF signals travel by waves that hug the ground rather than radiating into the atmosphere. A GWEN station transmits in a 360 degree circle up to 300 miles, the signal dropping off sharply with distance. The entire GWEN system consists of, (depending on source of data), from 58 to an intended 300 transmitters spread across the USA, each with a tower 299-500 ft high. 300 ft copper wires in spoke-like fashion fan out from the base of the system underground, interacting with the earth, like a thin shelled conductor, radiating radio wave energy for very long distances through the ground.

The United States is bathed in this magnetic field which can rise from ground up to 500 ft, but goes down into basements, so everyone can be affected and mind-controlled. The entire artificial ground-wave spreads out over the whole of the USA like a web. It is easier to mind-control and hypnotize people who are bathed in an artificial electromagnetic-wave.

GWEN transmitters have many different functions including:

1. controlling the weather,
2. mind control,
3. behavior and mood control, and
4. sending synthetic-telepathy as infrasound to victims with US government mind-control implants.

GWEN works in conjunction with HAARP and the Russian Woodpecker transmitter, which is similar to HAARP. The Russians openly market a small version of their weather-engineering system called Elate, which can fine-tune weather patterns over a 200 mile area and have the same range as the GWEN unit. An Elate system operates at Moscow airport. The GWEN towers shoot enormous bursts of energy into the atmosphere in conjuction with HAARP. The website www.cuttingedge.org wrote an expose of how the major floods of the Mid-West USA occurred in 1993.

Atmospheric Vapor Rivers
Enormous, invisible rivers of water, consisting of vapors that flow, move towards the poles in the lower atmosphere. They rival the flow of the Amazon River and are 420 to 480 miles wide and up to 4,800 miles long. They are 1.9 miles above the earth and contain a volume of water equivalent to 340 lbs of water per second. There are 5 atmospheric rivers in each Hemisphere. A massive flood can be created by damming up one of these massive vapor rivers, causing huge amounts of rainfall to be dumped. The GWEN Towers positioned along the areas north of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers were turned on for 40 days and 40 nights, probably mocking the Flood of Genesis. (This was in conjunction with HAARP, that creates a river of electricity flowing thousands of miles through the sky and down to the polar ice-cap, manipulating the jet-stream , like the Russian Woodpecker.) These rivers flooded, causing agricultural losses of $12-15 billion. HAARP produces earthquakes by focusing energy along fault lines. GWEN Towers are located on the fault lines and volcanic areas of the Pacific Northeast.

In 1963, Dr Robert Beck explored effects of external magnetic-fields on brainwaves showing a relationship between psychiatric admissions and solar magnetic storms. He exposed volunteers to pulsed magnetic-fields similar to magnetic-storms, and found a similar response. US 60 Hz electric power ELF waves vibrate at the same frequency as the human brain. UK 50 Hz electricity emissions depress the thyroid gland.

Human Vulnerability
Dr Andrija Puharich in the 50's/60's, found that clairvoyant's brainwaves became 8 Hz when their psychic powers were operative. He saw an Indian Yogi in 1956 controlling his brainwaves, deliberately shifting his consciousness from one level to another. Puharich trained people with bio-feedback to do this consciously, making 8 Hz waves. A healer made 8 Hz waves pass into a patient, healing their heart trouble, her brain emitting 8 Hz . One person emitting a certain frequency can make another also resonate to the same frequency. Our brains are extremely vulnerable to any technology which sends out ELF waves, because they immediately start resonating to the outside signal by a kind of tuning-fork effect. Puharich experimented discovering that

A) 7.83 Hz (earth's pulse rate) made a person feel good, producing an altered-state.
B) 10.80 Hz causes riotous behavior and
C) 6.6 Hz causes depression.

Puharich made ELF waves change RNA and DNA, breaking hydrogen bonds to make a person have a higher vibratory rate. He wanted to go beyond the psychic 8 Hz brainwave and attract psi phenomena. James Hurtak, who once worked for Puharich, also wrote in his book The Keys of Enoch that ultra-violet caused hydrogen bonds to break and this raised the vibratory rate.

Puharich presented the mental effects of ELF waves to military leaders, but they would not believe him. He gave this information to certain dignitaries of other Western nations. The US government burned down his home in New York to shut him up and he fled to Mexico. However, the Russians discovered which ELF frequencies did what to the human brain and began zapping the US Embassy in Moscow on 4 July 1976 with electromagnetic-waves, varying the signal, including focusing on 10 Hz. (10 Hz puts people into a hypnotic state. Russians and North Koreans use this in portable mind-control machines to extract confessions. A machine was even found in an American church to help the congregation believe!) The Russian "Woodpecker" signal was traveling across the world from a transmitter near Kiev. The US Air Force identified 5 different frequencies in this compound harmonic Woodpecker signal that was sending signals through the earth and the atmosphere.

Nikola Tesla revealed in 1901 power could be transmitted through the ground using ELF waves. Nothing stops or weakens these signals. The Russians retrieved Tesla's papers when they were finally returned to Yugoslavia after his death.

Puharich continued to monitor the Russian ELF wave signal while in Mexico and the higher harmonics produced in the MHz range (5.340 MHz). He met the CIA and started working for them. He and Dr. Robert Beck designed equipment to measure these waves and their effect on the human brain. Puharich started his work by putting dogs to sleep. By 1948/49 he graduated to monkeys, deliberately destroying their eardrums to enable them to pick up sounds without the eardrum intact. He discovered a nerve in the tongue could be used to facilitate hearing. He created the dental tooth implant which mind-control victims are now claiming was surreptitiously placed in their mouth by controlled dentists causing them to hear 'voices in their head.' The implant was placed under dental caps or lodged in the jaw.

Vaccine Implants
Implants are now smaller than a hair's width and are injected with vaccine and flu shots. Millions have had this done unknowingly. These 'biochips' circulate in the bloodstream and lodge in the brain, enabling the victims to hear 'voices' via the implant. There are many kinds of implants now and 1 in 40 are victims from 'alien abduction' statistics, though 1 in 20 has also been gauged. The fake alien abduction event, revealed to be actually the work of US military personnel using technology to make hologram spaceships outside, virtual reality scenarios of going onto a spaceship with humans in costumes, has been astutely perceived. Though real alien abductions do occur, the 'alien abduction' scenario has been useful to stop any further investigation or accountability of government authorities by poor victims who would face mockery and appear silly.

Are we being forced to respond to an artificially induced vibratory rate by global masters who want this planet to have a sudden leap in evolution, populated by the psychically aware and therefore a superior class of humans or is the agenda designed to eliminate billions of people who are 'useless eaters', deceptively being disposed by electro magnetically-induced cancers and diseases?

Electromagnetic Disease Transmission, ELF, & Chemtrails
The physics and engineering behind electromagnetic disease transmission are frightening. Diseases can be reproduced as 'disease signatures' in that the vibration of a disease can be manufactured and sent on to be induced. (The brainwave pattern of hallucinogenic drugs can also be copied and sent by ELF waves to induce 'visions'.) Once diseases are sprayed in the air, electromagnetic-waves attuned to the disease, using harmonics and subharmonics, will make them more lethal and infectious by sending particular disease frequency death-patterns.

Chemtrails are being sprayed daily all over USA (and other countries too) in a white crisscross pattern. They contain diseases and chemicals which affect our state of consciousness. They can produce apathy which works in conjuction with fluoridation of the water, as well as aspartame and drugs. Fluoride disables the willpower section of the brain, impairing the left occipital lobe.

Fluoride and selenium enable people to 'hear voices'. ELF waves create disturbances in the biological processes of the body and these can be activated in the population once the diseases are introduced into the body from the chemtrails.

Some chemtrails have been analyzed and shown to be creating cleavages in spacial perceptions, blocking the interaction of various amino-acids that relate to higher-consciousness and to increase dopamine in the brain producing a listless, spaced-out state of lower reactive mind.

Basically, the goal is to fog the difference between the real and unreal and some of this could be connected with the many UFO abductions occurring en-mass. Hundreds have been witnessed laid out on tables and implanted. Intelligence agencies are in league with each other behind this disablement of the masses to such a point that they can't even fight back. In order for the perpetrators to do what they want, they need the overall 'frequency' of each victim to function at a specific rate below the threshold of awareness.

Could this be part of a greater plan with mind-control transmitters covering the whole of USA and England, cleverly disguised as cell phone towers and trees? The power from microwave towers may be turned up to such a level that people can die.

A brain functioning at beta-level (above 13 Hz) is agitated and can't change its perceptions, if it is artificially maintained by technology to that frequency. This may increase body electricity in others, giving them psychic powers. Is this linked to the New-Agers claim of a rising 12-14 Hz Schumann Resonance, inching us towards the 4th dimension? Stimulants ingested globally from caffeine genetically-modified plants, may also produce an impact on the 'global-brain' in the ionosphere collecting our brainwaves. New-age channellers say we are going into 4th dimensional frequency. They 'heard' the voice of some 'ET' who told them.

However, some 'ETs' may be local boys. Voices in the head were produced in prisoners in Utah prisons using Tesla technology. Each of the prisoners received the same message from an 'ET'. Today, it seems, it's easy to produce 'voices in the head' without implants.

A prisoner called David Fratus in Draper Prison, Utah in 1988 wrote:

"I began to receive, or hear, high-frequency tones in my ears. When I plug my ears..the tones are still inside and become amplified. It's as if they had become electrified echo chambers with the sounds coming from the inside out..I began to hear voices..into my inner ears as vivid as though I were listening to a set of stereo headphones..with the end result being that I am now having my brain monitored by an omnipotent computerized mind reading or scanning machine of some sort "

Hundreds of inmates at the Gunnison Facility of the Utah State Prison, and the State Hospital were subject to this brand of mind-control in order to test it. In the early 1970s, this was brought out in the Utah U.S. District Court, because inmates who had been subjected to this Tesla-wave mind-control in prison had tried unsuccessfully to fight back in court. The University of Utah researched how Tesla-waves could be used to manipulate the mind into hearing voices, overriding and implanting thoughts into the mind, and reading the thoughts, as well as developing eye-implants.

Tracking
Cray computers, using artificial-intelligence, monitor the victims of government implants sending pre-recorded sound-bytes or occasional live messages. They are picked up by satellite and relayed to whatever large TV broadcasting antenna, GWEN tower or other microwave antenna is near the victim. It's believed that some type of body implants pick up the signal and broadcast the correct Tesla-wave pattern to create voices within the victim.

The tracking implant keeps the staff and the satellite system informed every few minutes as to exactly where to send the voice signals. The master computer and central HQ for this is reported to be in Boulder, CO. It is thought that transponders are being made there as well. The central cellular computer is in the Boulder, CO National Bureau of Standards building. AT&T is also cooperating in this project. Several government agencies work together on this.

Tim Rifat of UK wrote that

"this inter-cerebral hearing is used to drive the victim mad, as no one else can hear the voices transmitted into the brain of the target. Transmission of auditory data directly into the target's brains using microwave carrier beams is now common practice. Instead of using excitation potentials, one uses a transducer to modify the spoken word into ELF audiograms, that are then superimposed on a pulse modulated microwave beam."

The Sydney Morning Herald on 21 March 1983 published an article by Dr Nassim Abd El-Aziz Neweigy, Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Agriculture, Moshtohor Tukh-Kalubia, Egypt. It stated:

"Russian satellites, controlled by advanced computers, can send voices in one's own language interweaving into natural thoughts to the population of choice to form diffused artificial thought. The chemistry and electricity of the human brain can be manipulated by satellite and even suicide can be induced. Through ferocious anti-humanitarian means, the extremist groups are fabricated, the troubles and bloody disturbances are instigated by advanced tele-means via Russian satellites, in many countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and Latin America."

Another source says that these have been fed with the world's languages and synthetic telepathy will reach into people's heads making people believe God is speaking to them personally to enact the Second Coming, complete with holograms! The Russians broke the genetic code of the human brain. They worked out 23 EEG band-wave lengths, 11 of which were totally independent. So if you can manipulate those 11, you can do anything.

NSA Cray computers can remotely track people just knowing the specific EMF waves (evoked potentials from EEGs in the 30-50 Hz, 5 milliwatt range) of a person's bioelectric-field. Each person's emissions are unique and they can remotely track someone in public.

Maxwell's 'Hidden' Etheric Component
Evoked-potentials officially don't exist in physics, but in 1873 a Scotsman, James Clerk Maxwell, discovered electromagnetic waves have 3 components:

He discovered waveforms which exist at a certain number of right-angled rotations away from the electromagnetic-field. These are hyperspacial components, not subject to constraints of time and space. He claimed that electromagnetic-radiation waves were carried by the ether and the ether was disturbed by magnetic lines of force. The hidden component is called only 'potential' now and not normally used except for covert hyperdimensional physics and to manipulate consciousness itself via electromagnetic-waves covering vast areas of the planet.

Approx. one person in 3000 is naturally sensitive to this magnetic-waveform component, the telepathic types (according to a writer called "Majix"), but we are all capable of tuning into this magnetic component by tuning our subconscious to it. Maxwell's successors thought potentials were akin to mysticism, because they believed fields contain mass which cannot be created from apparently nothing, which is what potentials are, both literally and mathematically - they are an accumulation or reservoir of energy; but this hasn't been taught in mainstream physics.

Thought Control
Subliminal words in the correct electromagnetic-field that expresses human consciousness, attuned to the human brain, can enter our minds at a subconscious level. Our brain activity patterns can apparently be measured and stored on computer by super-computers. If a victim needs subliminal-thoughts implanted, all that is necessary is to capture, save on computer, and target the person's brainwave pattern to send them such low frequency subliminal-messages that they actually think it is their own thoughts [confirmed by Al Bielek and Preston Nichols with the Montauk Project in Long Island]. The researcher Majix says our brains are so sensitive that they are like liquid-crystal in response to the magnetic component of the earth.

We are sensitive to earth's magnetic changes, changes in the ionospheric cavity and re-resonate those frequencies ourselves. We are incredibly complex, beyond comprehension and a type of biocosmic transducer. He adds:

"Physicists in Russia correlate the mean annual magnetic-activity, electro-magnetic and electro-static fields on human behavior and medical indications.They are similar to biorhythms.These magnetic frequencies can be manipulated. Our brain waves can mimic magnetic frequencies from very simple equipment at extremely low power levels. From half a second to 4 seconds later, the neurons and brainwaves are driven exclusively by the device, with power levels almost nonexistent. All one needs is a circularly polarized antenna aimed up at the ionospheric cavity and they can manipulate the moods of everyone within a 75 sq. mile area. The body picks up these "new" manipulated waves and begins to correspond immediately. "Sleep" frequency will make everyone become tired and sleep."

In 1967, an "internationally renowned scientist" and Christopher Hills, a pendulum expert, communicated with some ETs. (It is not known who the scientist was, but at one time both Hills and Puharich were with the medium Eileen Garrett at a time when Puharich was communicating with ETs.)

In short, ETs communicated with us via modulated radio-waves, between 10,000 and 20,000 cycles below the known electromagnetic-spectrum. In the carrier-wave by amplitude modulation, mixed with frequency modulation. Single band energy, transmission power less than 25 watts. A naturally present wave on earth, the brain modulated - a wave that resonates between the earth and the ionosphere. All humans influence the ionosphere in this manner. A reflecting technique is involved. The brain modulation consisted of pulses, akin to those known from neuro pulses. Two humans can use this. It's related to something akin to low frequency radar and to ultrasonic techniques, but qualified. A mixed electro-acoustic wave function. The electromagnetic-wave induced an ultrasonic transduction in human tissue. The brain radiation has a sonic component to it as well as an electromagnetic component. Electromagnetic-radiation has a sonic component and it's dependent on the medium through which it travels.

The scientist cut through months of work. Now HAARP is slicing up the ionosphere, the world-brain, like a microwave knife, producing long tear incisions destroying the membrane which holds the reservoir of data accumulated by all earth's history. A healer called Mr. "A" claimed to receive "Ancient Wisdom" from this protective Magnetic-Ring of energy which stores within it all knowledge since time began. Ruth Mongomery wrote about him in Born To Heal.

He claimed that if our energy flow is cut off from this magnetic-field, the Universal-Supply is obstructed and we are no longer in tune and start to get sick. The Power from this travels in split-seconds around the world and is available to anyone who is capable of receiving it and handling it. The waves from The Ring automatically translated into words in his mind, as wisdom to diagnose and heal others, coming from the storehouse of knowledge here since the beginning of time. He produced instant miracles, knitting broken bones and removing arthritis. A photo caught forked lightning coming from his fingers.

In Let's Talk MONTAUK, Joyce Murphy shows that experiments on the 410-420 MHz cycle have been done which could affect the "window frequency to the human consciousness" as a whole:

"He (Preston Nichols) used his..radio equipment to learn that whenever a 410-420 MHz signal appeared on the air, the psychic's minds would be "jammed." Tracing the signal to Montauk Point and the red and white radar antenna on the Air Force Base.."

In Encounter in the Pleiades by Peter Moon and Preston Nichols, http://www.time-travel.com/skybooks/ Preston wrote that:

"Dr. Nicholas Begich has picked up 435 MHz signals connected to HAARP and that a mind control function is being employed. He says that 400-450 MHz is the window to human consciousness because it is our reality's background frequency."

Tim Rifat wrote in his Microwave Mind Control in the UK article http://www.brazilboycott.org/ that cellular phones use 435 MHz. UK police use 450 MHz exclusively. Dr. Ross Adey used this for CIA behavioral modification experiments. Police have a vast array of antennae to broadcast this frequency all over the UK. Adey used 0.75mW/cm2 intensity of pulse modulate microwave at a frequency of 450 MHz, with an ELF modulation to control all aspects of human behavior. 450 MHZ radar modulated at 60 Hz greatly reduced T-lymphocyte activity to kill cultured cancer cells. A study of USA 60 Hz power lines repeated this finding.



See:

the Jinn.net

The Nine

Dystopian visionary quotes from Brzezinski's book written back in 1970: "a system that would seriously impair the brain performance of very large populations"


More about Puharich:

from http://www.theforbiddenknowledge.com/hardtruth/council_of_nine_fortean.htm

Perhaps the most disturbing aspect of the history of The Nine is its relationship to the career of Andrija Puharich. Recent research has revealed Puharich to have a distinctly sinister side. As an Army doctor in the 1950s, he was deeply involved with the CIA's notorious MKULTRA mind control project (see panel). He - together with the infamous Dr Sidney Gottlieb - experimented with a variety of techniques to change or induce actual thought processes. even to creating the impression of voices in the head. These techniques included the use of drugs, hypnosis and beaming radio signals directly into the subject's brain. And, significantly, he was engaged in this work at exactly the same time that The Nine made their first appearance at the Round Table Foundation. The Foundation itself is now known to have been largely funded by the Pentagon as a front for its medical and parapsychological research. Puharich was still working for the CIA in the early 1970s, when he brought Uri Geller out of Israel. Puharich's use of hypnosis is particularly interesting in The Nine circle. In the case of Uri Geller and Bobby Horne, he first hypnotised them and then suggested that they were in touch with The Nine - and lo, they were! Ira Einhorn - a close associate of Puharich's during the 1970s - confirmed to us that he believed that Puharich was "humanly directing" The Nine communications.



from http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:vu7Tv44XhP8J:www.timboucher.com/journal/2005/11/09/andrija-puharich-yeh-hoova/+puharich+extraterrestrial&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us

"To quickly summarize, Puharich was involved on the one hand with ELF (extremely low frequency) transmissions, and even supposedly invented a radio receiver which could be inserted into tooth fillings. And then on the other hand, he has this history of alleged UFO contact, and a series of channellers who claimed to be in communion with ancient Egyptian gods. Here are a couple pieces I’ve written about him, which you might want to explore:
He’s one of these malleable characters who flit in and out of other people’s life stories, such as Gene Roddenberry, creator Star Trek, and psychic Uri Geller, who in turn is connected to Michael Jackson, John Lennon, Dodi Fayed’s father and more. Further, Puharich seems to have been very much treading the line between working for the government and working against the government at various times, which perhaps indicates that there was some deeper hidden agenda at work. I’ve encountered fewer figures in the annals of conspiracy research who seem to have lead more interesting lives, nor left behind more twisted trails.







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Carrington event solar protons

Wednesday, September 17, 2008
1
The atmospheric impact of the Carrington event solar protons 1
Craig J. Rodger 2
Department of Physics, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand 3
Pekka T. Verronen 4
Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland 5
Mark A. Clilverd and Annika Seppälä 6
Physical Sciences Division, British Antarctic Survey (NERC), Cambridge, United Kingdom 7
Esa Turunen 8
Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory, University of Oulu, Sodankylä, Finland 9
Abstract. The Carrington event of August/September 1859 was the most significant solar 10
proton event (SPE) of the last 450 years, about four times larger than the solar proton fluence of 11
the largest event from the "spacecraft era" (August 1972). Recently, much attention has focused 12
upon increasing our understanding of the Carrington event, in order to better quantify the 13
impact of extreme space weather events. In this study the Sodankylä Ion and Neutral Chemistry 14
(SIC) model is used to estimate the impact of the Carrington event to the neutral atmosphere 15
and the ionosphere, and the disruption to HF communication. We adopt a reported intensity- 16
time profile for the solar proton flux, and examine the relative atmospheric response to 17
different SPE-energy spectra, and in particular, the comparatively soft energy spectrum of the 18
August 1972 or March 1991 SPE which are believed to provide the best representation of the 19
Carrington event. Our calculations indicate that large changes in electron density and 20
atmospheric constituents occur during the period of SPE-forcing, depending upon the nature of 21
the spectrum and also on the hemisphere considered. However, the most important SPE-driven 22
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
2
atmospheric response is an unusually strong and long-lived Ox decrease in the upper 23
stratosphere (Ox levels drop by ~40%) primarily caused by the very large fluxes of >30 MeV 24
protons. This depletion is an indication of the extreme changes possible for the largest SPE. We 25
find that there are comparatively small long-term differences in the atmospheric and 26
ionospheric response between the 3 suggested SPE spectra. 27
28
1. Introduction 29
The Carrington event of August/September 1859 was the most significant solar proton event 30
(SPE) of the last 450 years, identified through impulsive nitrate events in polar ice [McCracken 31
et al., 2001]. The >30 MeV solar proton fluence determined from the ice cores indicate it was 32
twice as large as the next largest event (1895), and roughly four times larger than the solar 33
proton fluence of the largest event from the "spacecraft era" which occurred in August 1972. 34
The Carrington SPE was associated with the 1–2 September 1859 magnetic storm, the most 35
intense in recorded history [Tsurutani et al., 2003]. The space weather events of 36
August/September 1859 are now particularly famous due to Carrington's visual observation of 37
a white-light solar flare for the first time [Carrington, 1960]. The associated magnetic 38
disturbances produced widespread auroral displays and disruption to telegraph transmissions 39
which attracted much public attention and were widely reported in the newspapers and 40
scientific articles [see the review Boteler, 2006]. 41
Recently, much attention has focused upon increasing our understanding of the Carrington 42
event, in order to better quantify what extreme space weather events could do to our current 43
technological society. For example, estimates suggest a potential economic loss of billion due to lost revenue (~US$44 billion) and the cost of replacement of GEO satellites 45
(~US$24 billion) caused by a "once a century" single storm similar to the Carrington event 46
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
3
[Odenwald et al., 2006]. These authors estimate that 80 satellites in low-, medium, and 47
geostationary- Earth orbits might be disabled as a consequence of a superstorm event with 48
additional disruptions caused by the failure of many of the satellite navigation systems (e.g., 49
GPS). Ionising radiation doses from the SPE have been estimated to be as high as 54 krad (Si) 50
[Townsend et al., 2003], levels which are not only highly life-threatening for crews of manned 51
missions, but present a significant hazard to onboard electronics. 52
Solar proton events produce large ionization changes in the polar ionosphere which can drive 53
significant changes in atmospheric chemistry and communications disruption. Over the years 54
several studies of Solar Proton Event effects on the atmosphere have been published. The 55
earlier work of Crutzen and Solomon [1980], McPeters et al. [1981], and Solomon et al. [1983] 56
has been followed by several studies, notably the work of Jackman and coauthors [Jackman 57
and McPeters, 1985; Jackman and Meade, 1988; Jackman et al., 1990, 1993, 1995, 2000]. 58
SPEs result in enhancements of odd nitrogen (NOx) and odd hydrogen (HOx) in the upper 59
stratosphere and mesosphere [Crutzen et al.,1975; Solomon et al., 1981; Jackman et al., 1990, 60
2000]. NOx and HOx play a key role in the ozone balance of the middle atmosphere because 61
they destroy odd oxygen through catalytic reactions [e.g., Brasseur and Solomon, 1986, pp. 62
291-299]. Ionization changes produced by a 20 MeV proton will tend to peak at ~60 km 63
altitude [Turunen et al., Fig 3, 2008]. Ionization increases occurring at similar altitudes, caused 64
by solar proton events are known to lead to significant local perturbations in ozone levels 65
[Verronen et al., 2005], with polar ozone levels decreasing by >50% for large SPE. However, 66
the effect on annually averaged global total ozone is considered to be relatively small, of the 67
order of few tenths of a percent at the maximum [Jackman et al., 1996]. Changes in NOx and 68
O3 consistent with solar proton-driven modifications have been observed [Jackman et al. ,2001; 69
Seppälä et al., 2004; Verronen et al., 2005]. It is well-known that particle precipitation at high 70
latitudes produce additional ionization leading to increased HF absorption at high-latitudes 71
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
4
[MacNamara, 1985], in extreme cases producing a complete blackout of HF communications 72
in the polar regions. 73
In order to consider the impact of the Carrington event solar protons upon the Earth's 74
atmosphere, information on the fluence and energy spectrum of the SPE is required. An 75
estimate of the odd nitrogen increases and ozone decreases due to the Carrington SPE has been 76
undertaken [Thomas et al., 2007], using a Greenland ice core derived >30 MeV fluence of 77
2.7×1010 cm-2 and a spectrum taken from the very energetic and spectrally hard 19 October 78
1989 SPE. The total ionization was distributed over the 2 day duration uniformly (i.e. as a step 79
function), leading to a localized maximum column ozone depletion which was ~3.5 times 80
greater than that of the 1989 event. As noted in this study, the use of the 19 October 1989 81
spectrum to represent the 1859 Carrington SPE was a "best guess" approach, given the total 82
lack of direct proton spectral measurements in that era. 83
Limits on the Carrington event spectrum have been provided by measurements of the 84
cosmogenic isotope 10Be, also found in polar ice cores. Analysis of the 10Be concentrations 85
suggest that the spectral hardness of the Carrington event was significantly softer than those of 86
September-October 1989 SPE [Beer et al., 1990]; any increase in 10Be associated with the 87
Carrington event was found to be less than the 9% standard deviation of the annual data. It has 88
been suggested that the Carrington event may have had an energy spectrum very similar to 89
those measured for the August 1972 or March 1991 SPE [Smart et al., 2006]. The later study 90
also constructed an intensity-time profile of the solar particle flux, by assuming that the 91
Carrington solar event is part of the class of interplanetary shock-dominated events where the 92
maximum particle flux is observed as the shock passes the Earth. 93
In this study we make use of the new findings as to the nature of the Carrington event, 94
adopting both the Smart et al. [2006] intensity-time profile for the >30 MeV solar proton flux, 95
and the softer energy spectrum required to reproduce the cosmogenic isotope concentrations. 96
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
5
We make use of the Sodankylä Ion and Neutral Chemistry (SIC) model to estimate the impact 97
of the Carrington event to the neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere, and the disruption to HF 98
communication. We go on to consider the potential "worst case" significance of a Carrington- 99
level "superstorm". 100
2. Spectrum and intensity-time profile of the Carrington SPE 101
As noted above, cosmogenic isotope concentrations have indicated that the Carrington SPE 102
was significantly softer than those of September-October 1989 SPE. Smart et al. [2006] 103
concluded that either of the comparatively soft SPE energy spectra from August 1972 or March 104
1991 could be representative of that for the Carrington event, given the cosmogenic isotope 105
observations. In contrast, some previous studies into the potential doses to humans and 106
electronics, and the atmospheric impact, have used hard SPE energy spectra, particularly 29 107
September 1989 and 19 October 1989 [see the discussion in Townsend et al., 2006]. In this 108
study we model the SPE spectra using a Weibull distribution, which has been shown to provide 109
an accurate representation of the measured proton spectra for these events [Xapsos et al., Table 110
1, 2000]. The Weibull distribution fit for differential SPE fluxes are described through the 111
expression 112
( ) α α α kE E k
dE
d − Φ =
Φ − exp 1
0 (1) 113
where E is the energy in MeV and Φ
0 , k, and α are the Weibull fitting parameters. k and α are 114
taken from Xapsos et al. [2000], while Φ
0 is scaled to reproduce the >30 MeV proton fluence 115
for the Carrington event (1.9×1010 cm-2 [McCracken et al., 2001]). These values are given in 116
Table 1. The SPE fluxes are expressed with units of protons cm-2s-1sr-1MeV-1. Figure 1 shows a 117
comparison between the differential fluences which have been used to describe the Carrington 118
event, based on four different SPE. The differential fluences shown in Figure 1 have been 119
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
6
normalised to the Carrington-level >30 MeV fluence of 1.9×1010 protons cm-2. As noted by 120
Townsend et al. [2006], both of the SPEs which occurred in 1989 were spectrally hard, and 121
rather similar to one-another. In contrast, the SPEs which occurred in August 1972 and March 122
1991 were much softer, with the August 1972 SPE having an unusually soft spectrum. These 123
two soft-spectra SPEs provide two possibilities through which we can estimate the impact of 124
the Carrington event upon the neutral atmosphere, following the approach of Smart et al. 125
[2006] to treat these as "indicative spectra". The harder spectra from September-October 1989 126
provide an approach by which comparisons can be made with earlier studies, and also an 127
estimate of the possible "extreme" worst-case for a Carrington-level SPE with a hard spectra. 128
As the September and October 1989 SPE have very similar spectra, we arbitrarily select 129
October 1989. Note, however, that the differences between the normalised energy spectra for 130
the two hard SPEs and that of March 1991 are much smaller across the energy range 2- 131
40 MeV. Protons in this energy range deposit most of their energy in the altitude range ~50- 132
85 km [Turunen et al., Fig. 3, 2008], where SPE-induced changes to the neutral atmosphere are 133
largest [e. g., Verronen et al., 2005]. As such, it is instructive to contrast the atmospheric 134
impact of the differing spectra, as this may be less significant than Figure 1 suggests. 135
The upper panel of Figure 2 shows the intensity-time profile for >30 MeV solar proton fluxes 136
during the Carrington event [after Fig. 12, Smart et al., 2006]. This profile is combined with the 137
SPE energy spectra of Figure 1 to produce three different time-varying differential proton 138
fluxes for proton energies of 1-2000 MeV across the time period of the Carrington event, as 139
shown in the 3 lower panels of Figure 2. In those panels the time-varying differential proton 140
flux is shown with units of log10[protons cm-2s-1sr-1MeV-1]. The second and third panels of 141
Figure 2 represent differing possible differential fluxes for the Carrington SPE, while the lower 142
panel represents the "worst case" of a Carrington-level SPE with a hard spectrum. For time 143
periods outside the Smart et al. intensity-time profile, the proton fluxes are set to zero. A 144
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
7
widely accepted SPE definition requires the >10 MeV proton flux to be >10 cm-2s-1sr-1MeV-1. 145
The beginning and end of the time profile shown in Figure 2 are below this level, and thus we 146
have confidence that the fluxes shown in Figure 2 describe the entire SPE event. 147
3. Sodankylä Ion Chemistry Model 148
Using the Sodankylä Ion and Neutral Chemistry (SIC) model we consider the atmospheric 149
consequences of the Carrington SPE using the time-varying proton fluxes from Figure 2. SPE 150
produce ionization increases in the polar mesosphere and upper stratosphere, which in turn alters 151
atmospheric chemistry through changes in HOx and NOx. The SIC model is a 1-D chemical 152
model designed for ionospheric D-region studies, solving the concentrations of 65 ions at 153
altitudes across 20–150 km, of which 36 are positive and 29 negative, as well as 15 minor neutral 154
species. Our study made use of SIC version 6.9.0. The model has recently been discussed by 155
Verronen et al. [2005], building on original work by Turunen et al. [1996] with neutral species 156
modifications described by Verronen et al. [2002]. A detailed overview of the model was given 157
in Verronen et al. [2005], but we summarize the key characteristics of the model here to provide 158
background for this study. 159
In the SIC model several hundred reactions are implemented, plus additional external forcing 160
due to solar radiation (1–422.5 nm), electron and proton precipitation, and galactic cosmic 161
radiation. Solar flux is calculated with the SOLAR2000 model (version 2.27, now the Solar 162
Irradiance Platform, SIP) [Tobiska et al., 2000]. The scattered component of solar Lyman-α flux 163
is included using the empirical approximation given by Thomas and Bowman [1986]. The SIC 164
code includes vertical transport [Chabrillat et al., 2002] which takes into account molecular 165
[Banks and Kockarts, 1973] and eddy diffusion with a fixed eddy diffusion coefficient profile 166
which has a maximum of 1.2×106 cm2s-1 at 110 km. The background neutral atmosphere is 167
calculated using the MSISE-90 model [Hedin, 1991] and tables given by Shimazaki [1984]. The 168
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8
SIC-models does not calculate temperature variations, leaving these fixed by MSIS. As such no 169
transport driven by adiabatic heating or cooling are included in the SIC results. Such changes in 170
vertical transport have been calculated for large SPE events [Jackman et al., 2007], but were 171
insignificant below 60 km altitudes. In the SIC model transport and chemistry are advanced in 172
intervals of 5 minutes. Within each 5 minute interval exponentially increasing time steps are 173
used because of the wide range of chemical time constants of the modeled species. 174
3.1 Control Run 175
In order to interpret the SPE-driven changes, a SIC modeling run has also been undertaken 176
without any SPE-forcing (i.e., zero proton fluxes), termed the "control" run. The SIC model is 177
run for the northern hemisphere location (70ºN, 0ºE) and southern hemisphere location (70ºS, 178
0ºE) starting on 27 August 1859 and continuing for 24 days. These locations were selected as the 179
geomagnetic cutoff energy is small for sufficiently high magnetic latitudes, such that the proton 180
flux spectra is essentially unaffected by the geomagnetic field, particularly for the mesospheric 181
altitudes of interest. Modeling of the 1850 geomagnetic field suggests there is little change in 182
cutoff rigidities for these locations relative to the modern field [Shea and Smart, Fig. 4, 2006], 183
and hence modern rigidity calculations can be applied [e.g., Rodger et al., 2006a]. In addition, 184
for these locations UT=LT, making interpretation easier. Finally, the northern location is the 185
same as has been used in some previous SIC-modeling studies into SPE-effects [e.g., Verronen 186
et al., 2005; Clilverd et al, 2006; Seppälä et al., 2006], allowing direct comparisons. 187
We assume active solar cycle phase for the SOLAR2000 output (F10.7 = 158.2×10-22 Wm-2Hz- 188
1, F10.7A = 167.7 ×10-22 Wm-2Hz-1), and drive the MSIS model with Ap = 138 based on the 189
mean storm value determined for the Carrington period [Nevanlinna, 2006]. Note that the 190
geomagnetic amplitude index C9 from the St. Petersburg observatory (Russia) reached peak 191
values of 8 and 9 for the times of the two peaks in the SPE fluxes [Nevanlinna, Fig 3., 2006], 192
which will also ensure that the cutoff rigidities are very low for our modeling locations. We 193
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
9
therefore assume that the geomagnetic cutoff energy is zero throughout the calculation for both 194
locations. 195
The results of this no-forcing control SIC-run, shown in Figure 3, represent the calculation of 196
"normal" conditions, and hence allow an indication of the significance of the SPE-driven 197
changes. The top panel of Figure 3 shows the normal diurnal variation in electron number 198
density, the second panel shows HOx number density (H + OH + HO2), the third panel NOx 199
number density (N + NO + NO2), and the lower panel shows Ox (O + O3). We use HOx, NOx and 200
Ox rather than NO and O3 as there are substantial diurnal variations in both the latter populations, 201
which would lead to distracting features in the relative change plots presented below. In all cases 202
these panels have units of log10[cm-3]. 203
The diurnal variation in the constituents is most clearly seen in the electron density and HOx 204
panels of Figure 3, but is much weaker for the NOx and Ox panels. This is because the chemical 205
lifetimes for the NOx and Ox species are relatively long, while the rapid changes taking place 206
during the diurnal cycle occur inside the family of species (i.e. NO2 and NO). There is a gradual 207
change present in the southern hemisphere HOx and NOx panels, due to increasing levels of 208
sunlight caused by the seasonal lengthening of the periods with daytime conditions as seen in the 209
electron density panels. 210
211
3.2 Proton Forcing 212
Ionization rates are calculated for the three possible representations of the Carrington SPE as 213
described in Verronen et al. [2005], and are shown in Figure 4 with units of log10[cm-3s-1]. As 214
the March 1991 spectrum leads to more high energy protons (>300 MeV) present in the SPE 215
than the August 1972 spectrum, the ionization rates are more significant at lower altitudes 216
(~20 km). However, the Weibull-fitted SPE spectrum for March 1991 also leads to additional 217
lower energy protons (<20 MeV) relative to August 1972, causing the ionization rates to be 218
larger than the August 1972 case for altitudes >~65 km. The hard spectra case (October 1989) 219
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
10
has significant ionization rates present for the lowest altitudes considered in our modeling (at 220
~20 km), where the rates are several orders of magnitude higher than for either of the other 221
spectra. In all cases the first ionization pulse is similar to the peak ionization rates seen for 222
other large SPE events [e.g., Verronen et al., Fig. 1, 2005, Seppälä et al., Fig. 1, 2006], while 223
the second pulse on 2 September 1859 is about one order of magnitude larger. 224
4. Modeling results 225
The ionization rates shown in Figure 4 are used to drive the SIC model. Hence we examine 226
the altitude and time variation in the electron number density and the neutral atmospheric 227
species (e.g., NOx (N + NO + NO2), HOx (H + OH + HO2), and Ox (O + O3)), during the 228
Carrington SPEs. The atmospheric changes modeled in our study mostly occur in the 229
mesosphere and upper stratosphere, as determined by energy spectra of the precipitating 230
protons. In the mesosphere changes in O3 (or Ox) are primarily caused by increases in HOx, 231
although NOx does play some role near 50 km and is important in Ox chemistry in the upper 232
stratosphere. Ionization-produced NOx and HOx leads to the Ox changes as shown in the 233
following figures. 234
4.1 Electron density variation 235
Figure 5 presents the Carrington SPE electron number density changes caused by the three 236
selected SPE-spectra, relative to the control runs shown in Figure 3, shown for the northern 237
hemisphere (left) and southern hemisphere (right) cases. The figure shows the ratio to represent 238
the very large changes which occur. The electron density plots show very large increases 239
during the period of direct SPE-forcing (i.e., 27 August-8 September 1859), with the two pulse 240
time-structure of the SPE clearly seen in the electron density relative changes. The peak 241
electron density changes in the 2nd pulse are roughly one order of magnitude larger than for the 242
1st pulse, as expected from the differences in the SPE forcing. The largest enhancements occur 243
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
11
in the southern hemisphere, which is dominated by night-time ionospheric conditions. The 244
three SPE spectra lead to rather similar electron density increases, of about 103-104 times in the 245
40-100 km altitude range. The primary difference between the 3 spectra considered is between 246
the August 1972 and October 1989 cases below 40 km altitude, to the relative hardness of the 247
spectra. Once the SPE forcing ends, the electron density rapidly returns to normal levels at 248
most altitudes. The exception to this is a long-lived factor of 3-9 increase which occurs at 249
~80 km altitude, caused by the Lyman-α ionization of increased NOx present after the SPE. 250
Note that this electron density enhancement feature does not completely disappear, and is still 251
present 10 days after the end of the SPE forcing. However, we are unable to determine the true 252
recovery time of this enhancement, as it lasts beyond the timescale over which our model runs 253
can be considered realistic. The length of the SIC-run needs to be limited due to the increasing 254
significance of horizontal transport, in addition to vertical transport from adiabatic heating, 255
neither of which are included in the 1D SIC model. In reality, the relatively small electron 256
density enhancement feature is likely to dissipate more rapidly than shown here, due to 257
transport mixing out the long-lived NOx increase. 258
4.2 HOx variation 259
Figure 6 presents the variation of HOx, in the same format as Figure 5. Increases in HOx are 260
only significant around the times of the SPE-forcing, as the lifetime of HOx is very short, and 261
the majority of the SPE-produced HOx rapidly decreases once forcing ends. As in the electron 262
case, the increases appear more significant in the southern hemisphere as the background level 263
of HOx is larger in the daytime than the night (Figure 3). All three spectra lead to peak HOx 264
increases of about one order of magnitude from ~20-85 km, with the two "hard" SPE spectra 265
causing significant HOx increases to the lowest altitudes considered. Order-of-magnitude HOx 266
increases have been seen also during smaller, more recent SPE, one example being the January 267
2005 event [Verronen et al., 2006; Seppälä et al., 2006]. However these high enhancements 268
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
12
have typically been restricted to mesospheric altitudes between 50-80 km. After the forcing, all 269
the SPE spectra produce a long-lived HOx increase of ~40% located around 60-80 km altitudes, 270
present during the nighttime periods. This persistent HOx increase is related to the increase of 271
NO. Larger amounts of NO lead to increased ionization in the D-region, even at night-time 272
because of Lyman-α radiation scattered from the geocorona being an important source of ions. 273
Increased ionization leads to more HOx production through ion chemistry during both day and 274
night. However, this occurs on a relatively low level so that this change is only seen at night 275
when the background production of HOx, which is dependent upon solar radiation, is low. The 276
persistent HOx increase will influence Ox destruction at these altitudes, leading to a long-lived 277
loss. 278
4.3 NOx variation 279
The SPE-produced NOx increases are shown in Figure 7, again in the same format as Figure 5. 280
In this case, the NOx increases are more significant in the northern hemisphere as the 281
background levels of NOx are significantly lower in the sunlight hemisphere (12 times less NOx 282
in the northern hemisphere), and hence the relative NOx increase in the northern hemisphere is 283
~5 times larger than the southern hemisphere. The production rate is the same in both 284
hemispheres, and while the loss rate is larger in the more sunlit northern hemisphere, the 285
relative peak increases are also larger. The faster decay rates in the northern hemisphere due to 286
additional levels of sunlight can be seen in this figure, such that the NOx increases at the end of 287
the SIC modeling period are larger in the southern hemisphere, even though the peak change is 288
larger in the northern. The most significant NOx increases occur from 40-85 km altitude, where 289
the background NOx levels are very low (Figure 3, panel 3). The SPE-produced increases are 290
roughly 100-1000 times the background levels, and thus are much like creating lower 291
thermospheric NOx concentrations at mesospheric altitudes where NOx concentrations are 292
normally very low. Again, there is very little difference between the NOx changes produced by 293
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
13
the March 1991 and October 1989 SPE spectra, while the softer August 1972 spectra leads to 294
11-14 times less NOx around 80 km altitude than for the harder spectra (depending on the 295
hemisphere considered). The NOx produced at altitudes below ~60 km altitudes is very long 296
lived in all conditions as NOx is normally destroyed by solar radiation, which has been largely 297
absorbed at higher altitudes causing very little photodissociation of low-altitude enhancements. 298
Once again, this is an area in which transport needs to be considered, and would be a 299
reasonable topic for a future study. 300
4.4 Ox variation 301
The effect of the HOx and NOx increases on Ox is shown in Figure 8. In this case the relative 302
changes (the ratio between the SPE run and the control run) are shown on a linear scale. During 303
the peak SPE-forcing periods, Ox concentrations drop by 80-90% across an altitude range of 304
50-80 km, with minimum values of 11-13% of the ambient Ox. The two hard spectra 305
representations produce unusually broad Ox decreases stretching over a wider altitude range 306
than seen for most large SPE. For example, the large SPEs which occurred in January 2005 307
produced Ox decreases of about 80% over 70-80 km altitude [Fig2.,Seppälä et al., 2004], while 308
the Carrington SPE is likely to have led to a ~90% decrease over the wider altitude range of 309
~60-80 km. These very large decreases in Ox which occur during the SPE-forcing are caused by 310
HOx. However, this quickly returns to near normal levels at most altitudes (Figure 6) once the 311
proton forcing has finished, after which the mesospheric Ox largely recovers. A long-lived but 312
relatively small nighttime Ox decrease of 5%, at 60-80 km altitude remains after the forcing, 313
caused by the previously identified HOx feature in Figure 6. However, after the SPE forcing 314
there is a significant long lived Ox decrease (Ox levels drop of ~40% when compared with 315
normal levels) at ~45 km altitude, i.e. in the upper stratosphere. This is an unusually large 316
decrease for a direct SPE effect upon these relatively low altitudes and is produced by the long- 317
lived NOx with an order of magnitude increase occurring at ~45 km altitude (Figure 7). The 318
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
14
first pulse in the SPE leads directly to a ~10-20% Ox decrease at these altitudes, which is more 319
typical for very large SPE [e.g. Seppälä et al., 2004]. All the three possible Carrington spectra 320
create this large low-altitude Ox decrease. Since protons of energy 30 MeV penetrate to ~50 km 321
and the three proton flux spectra are normalized to the same value for proton energies 322
>30 MeV, this was not unexpected. This is an indication of the extreme changes possible for 323
the largest SPE, and is a feature not seen in "normal" large SPE, even those with unusually hard 324
spectra [Seppälä et al., 2004, 2008], where the relative SPE-produced NOx increase are 325
insignificant due to the very large background NOx concentrations at these altitudes (Figure 3). 326
4.5 Synthesis 327
The three possible proton spectra representing the Carrington event lead to rather different 328
atmospheric ionization rates (Figure 4), which in turn produce somewhat different responses 329
for the electron number density profiles and neutral atmospheric constituents. There is also 330
some difference in the relative response between the northern and southern hemisphere due to 331
the relative levels of sunlight, either by pre-conditioning the background conditions (e.g., 332
electrons, HOx, NOx), or by driving the direct loss rates (e.g., NOx). In all cases the largest 333
changes occur during the two-pulse solar proton event itself, across the ~12 days in which there 334
is direct SPE forcing. During the period of direct SPE forcing the nature of the change depends 335
somewhat upon the SPE-spectra and hemisphere considered. The first pulse of the SPE leads to 336
changes which are similar to those produced by the largest SPE previously considered, while 337
the second pulse generally drives considerably larger changes. After the period of SPE-forcing 338
has finished there is much less difference in the calculated chemical effects between the 339
different SPE-spectra and hemisphere calculations than the period during the SPE forcing. This 340
is particularly the case for odd oxygen (Ox), likely the most important long-lived change driven 341
by large SPE. In all cases considered here the Carrington SPE produces a significant and 342
unusually strong long-lived Ox decrease (Ox levels drop by ~40%) at ~45 km altitude, i.e. in the 343
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
15
upper stratosphere due to NOx increases. As the nature of this NOx increase does not vary 344
significantly by SPE-spectra or hemisphere, there is relatively little variation in the long lived 345
Ox decrease. 346
Thomas et al. [2007] used ionization rates scaled from the October 1989 SPE to describe the 347
impact of the Carrington SPE upon long-lived ozone levels using a two dimensional 348
atmospheric model. Figure 9 shows the variation in the O3 column above 30 km altitude 349
determined from our calculations, for the three possible Carrington spectra and considering 350
both hemispheres. The maximum decrease in the >30 km O3 column is ~9% for both 351
hemispheres, with the somewhat softer spectra (March 1991) leading to maximum decrease of 352
~7%. As there is no immediate impact of the Carrington SPE upon O3 below 30 km altitude, 353
this 7-9% variation represents all the change in total column O3 which would be produced by 354
the SPE on short-time scales, before transport processes become significant. Transport 355
processes are likely to cause a decent in altitude of the SPE-produced NOx inside the winter 356
pole, leading to larger decreases in Ox and to more significant decreases in column O3. As the 357
one dimensional SIC model does not extend to low altitudes, and does include some significant 358
sources of vertical and horizontal transport, it is not possible to make a direct comparison with 359
the results of Thomas et al. [2007] from their two dimensional model. However, the small 360
differences between the calculated >30 km O3 column indicates the atmospheric response of 361
the Carrington SPE is not strongly dependent upon the spectra, suggesting that the calculations 362
of Thomas et al. [2007] are likely to be reasonable, at least within the overall uncertainties 363
associated with modeling this event. 364
The primary differences between the southern and northern hemispheric runs are due to the 365
very differing levels of sunlight. In order to further test this, and to consider the possible 366
"extreme" effect of the Carrington SPE, we have also undertaken a SIC-modeling run at the 367
southern hemisphere location (70ºS, 0ºE) starting from 15 July, and thus considering a period in 368
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16
which there is almost no direct solar illumination. While it is complex to directly compare the 369
results of this run with the earlier calculations described above due to the very different 370
background conditions, there are no dramatic differences between the southern hemisphere 371
polar winter run starting 15 July and the run for the actual Carrington event times. The minor 372
differences (not shown) are dependent upon the levels of sunlight, as expected. For example, 373
the NOx loss at ~80 km is very low, such that almost all of the NOx produced by the SPE 374
remains to the end of the modeling run. In addition, the effect of the SPE during the forcing 375
period is more significant, with deeper longer-lived Ox losses from 60-80 km altitude that 376
recover more slowly (lasting 3-4 days more). However, the long-lived Ox decrease at 40-50 km 377
altitude is slightly less significant in the polar night run (decreases of ~40% rather than ~60%). 378
This is because the catalytic cycles of NOx require atomic oxygen to be present, which is only 379
released by photodissociation. While there are numerous minor differences between the polar 380
night runs and the existing southern hemisphere runs, they are small enough that we can 381
conclude the existing northern and southern hemisphere calculations provide a sufficiently 382
accurate indication of the significance of the Carrington-event of 1859. Additional 383
interhemispheric differences will also arise due to differences between the circulation patterns 384
in both hemispheres and their seasonal variability, which is not captured in the existing 1D 385
model used in our study. While this is likely to be significant when considering the long-time 386
scale response, it is unlikely to produce large changes in the calculations as presented. Over 387
time the relative importance of horizontal and vertical transport will increase, processes which 388
are not fully included in the one dimensional SIC model. However, the SIC modeling does 389
allow comparison between the immediate effects of the three different Carrington spectra in 390
either hemisphere. As such, these calculations should also provide a reasonable estimate of the 391
immediate impact of a future Carrington-like event striking the Earth's atmosphere. 392
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5. Effect on HF communication 393
The additional ionospheric ionization caused by solar proton events lead to "polar blackouts", 394
also known as "polar cap absorption (PCA)" events, which are disruptions to HF/VHF 395
communications in high-latitude regions caused by attenuation in the ionospheric D-region 396
[Davies, 1990]. The additional attenuation can make HF communications impossible throughout 397
the polar regions, areas where HF communication is particularly important for the international 398
aviation industry; on some occasions major airlines have cancelled trans-polar flights due to such 399
space weather events [Jones et al., 2005], while the practice of changing the flightpaths to avoid 400
the poles leads to increased fuel consumption. 401
In order to characterize the ionospheric significance of the Carrington-SPE on HF attenuation 402
levels, we consider the variation with time of the Highest Affected Frequency (HAF) during the 403
SPE. The HAF is defined as the frequency which suffers a loss of 1 dB during vertical 404
propagation from the ground, through the ionosphere, and back to ground. Radio frequencies 405
lower than the HAF suffer an even greater loss. Here we determine the HAF by contrasting the 406
SPE-produced electron density changes with those expected from Solar Flares, following the 407
approach outlined in Rodger et al. [2006b]. As an example, an X20 flare, which has peak 0.1- 408
0.8 nm X-ray fluxes of 2.0 mW m-2, produces a HAF of 38 MHz. Flares of this magnitude lead 409
to "extreme" Radio Blackouts, with essentially no HF radio contact with mariners or en-route 410
aviators. NOAA has defined a Space Weather Scale for Radio Blackouts [Poppe, 2000], ranging 411
from R1 describing a minor disruption due to an M1 flare (10 µW m-2 peak 0.1-0.8 nm X-ray 412
flux) to R5 for the extreme blackout case described above. We will employ this scale to provide 413
an indication of the severity of the SPE-induced polar blackouts. 414
Figure 10 shows the HF blackout estimates for the Carrington SPE. The left panels shows the 415
blackouts estimated for the August 1972 spectra, while the right panels are for the March 1991 416
spectra, where the northern hemisphere results are in black and the southern hemisphere results 417
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
18
in red. The HF blackouts estimated for October 1989 are very similar to the March 1991 case, 418
due to the very similar electron density profiles (Figure 5), and hence are not shown in Figure 10. 419
The upper panels of Figure 10 show the equivalent peak X-ray flux in the 0.1-0.8 nm 420
wavelength range which would cause the same ionosphere electron density change during a solar 421
flare, represented using the H' parameter of Wait and Spies [1964]. For both the northern 422
hemisphere and southern hemisphere cases, and both spectra, the SPE-produced disruptions are 423
equivalent to very large equivalent peak X-ray fluxes. For context, there are about 175 solar 424
flares with peak X-ray fluxes of X1 or above per solar cycle (~16 per year), and 8 flares >X10 425
per cycle. The upper panel of Figure 10 also indicates the X45 threshold, representing the largest 426
solar flare peak X-ray flux measured since about 1976 [Thomson et al., 2004; 2005]. In both 427
cases the SPE-produced ionospheric disturbance peaks around the X45 threshold, and is larger 428
than the X10 threshold for ~15.5 hours. In contrast, the X45 flare of 4 November 2003 led to X- 429
ray fluxes which were >X10 for ~20 min [Thomson et al., Fig. 2, 2004]. 430
The lowest panels of Figure 10 presents the Highest Affected Frequency calculated from the 431
equivalent peak X-ray powers following the empirically derived relationship between HAF and 432
solar 0.1-0.8 nm X-ray flux provided by the Space Environmental Forecaster Operations 433
Manual (1997). The NOAA Radio Blackout Scale has been added for comparison. While the 434
peak HAF is smaller for the softer August 1972 spectra, in both cases and hemispheres the 435
Carrington SPE would have produced polar blackouts equivalent to the "Extreme" threshold of 436
the NOAA Radio Blackout Scale for a time period of ~15 hours, and led to some disturbances in 437
polar HF communications for ~11-12 days. While this is long in comparison to most SPE 438
disruptions, it is not wildly larger than the few days of disruption caused by most large SPE- 439
events. As such, the polar communications disruptions associated with the Carrington SPE would 440
not be severe, despite the exceptional nature of the SPE itself. 441
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6. Discussion and Summary 442
The Carrington event of August/September 1859 was the most significant solar proton event 443
(SPE) of the last 450 years, with about four times larger solar proton fluence than the largest 444
event from the "spacecraft era" (August 1972). The space weather event which occurred at this 445
time produced the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history and the first visual 446
observation of a white-light solar flare. Recently, much attention has focused upon increasing 447
our understanding of the Carrington event, in order to better quantify the impact of extreme 448
space weather events. In this study we have used new findings as to the nature of the 449
Carrington event, adopting an intensity-time profile for the >30 MeV solar proton flux, and 450
examining the relative atmospheric response to three different SPE-energy spectra which have 451
previously been used to represent the Carrington SPE. Cosmogenic isotope concentrations have 452
indicated that the Carrington SPE likely had a comparatively soft energy spectrum, for example 453
similar to those measured for the August 1972 or March 1991 SPE, rather than the October 454
1989 SPE spectra sometimes used to model the impact of the Carrington SPE. The Sodankylä 455
Ion and Neutral Chemistry (SIC) model has been used to estimate the impact of the Carrington 456
event to the neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere, and the disruption to HF communication. 457
As seen in the SIC-output plots described in this paper, large changes in electron density and 458
atmospheric constituents occur during the period of SPE-forcing, which depend upon the nature 459
of the spectrum and also on the hemisphere considered. This is particularly significant for the 460
electron density increases. However, the most important SPE-driven atmospheric response is 461
the long-lived Ox decreases in the upper stratosphere (Ox levels drop by ~40% of the normal 462
level). This change does not significantly vary between the 3 spectra, or between the 2 463
hemispheres, due to the very small differences in the long-lived low-altitude NOx increases 464
which produce the Ox decreases. All the three possible Carrington spectra create this large low- 465
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
20
altitude Ox decrease due to the very large >30 MeV proton fluxes present in the normalized 466
spectra. This is an indication of the extreme changes possible for the very largest SPE, and is 467
not a feature seen previously for "normal" large SPE, even those with unusually hard spectra. 468
We have also characterized the ionospheric significance of the Carrington-SPE on HF 469
attenuation levels. Should a Carrington-level event occur in the current era, it would cause 470
disruptions to HF/VHF communications in high-latitude regions, making HF communications 471
impossible throughout the polar regions for some time. This could have a significant impact on 472
the routing of trans-polar aeroplane travel. The Carrington SPE would have produced polar 473
blackout equivalent to the "Extreme" threshold of the NOAA Radio Blackout Scale for a time 474
period of ~15 hours, and led to some disturbances in polar HF communications over a time 475
period of ~11-12 days, (i.e., during the period of direct SPE forcing). While this is long in 476
comparison to most SPE disruptions, it is not wildly larger than the few days of disruption 477
caused by most large SPE-events. As such, the polar communications disruptions associated 478
with the Carrington SPE would not be particularly severe, despite the exceptional nature of the 479
SPE itself. 480
In general, the atmospheric and ionospheric response is somewhat different between the 481
August 1972 or March 1991 SPE spectra, while the calculations using the March 1991 and 482
October 1989 SPE spectra are very similar to one another. Thus while cosmogenic isotope 483
concentrations from ice-cores indicate that the Carrington-SPE was comparatively soft, the 484
conclusions of previous modeling studies into the atmospheric response of the Carrington SPE 485
which have used rather hard spectra, and specifically the October 1989 SPE spectra, are likely 486
to be reasonable, at least within the overall uncertainties associated with modeling this event. 487
This is particularly important to the conclusions of Thomas et al. [2007], who used ionization 488
rates scaled from the October 1989 SPE to describe the impact of the Carrington SPE upon 489
long-lived ozone levels. These authors concluded that the globally averaged column-ozone 490
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
21
would decrease by as much as 4%, recovering slowly over several years. While this ozone 491
depletion is small in a global sense, it is accompanied by much larger decreases in the poles, 492
with long-lived polar ozone losses which are similar to those calculated in our study. As noted 493
by Thomas et al., even small increases in UVB can be harmful to many life forms. In addition, 494
changes in the chemical balance of the upper and middle stratosphere may be associated with 495
changes in polar winds and temperatures, and may even lead to few degree variations in sea- 496
level temperatures [Rozanov et al., 2005]. 497
498
Acknowledgments. CJR would like to thank Gillian Rodger of Manchester for her support. 499
PTV and AS are partly funded by the Academy of Finland through project 123275, 500
Thermosphere and Mesosphere affecting the Stratosphere. AS would also like to thank the 501
Academy of Finland for their support of her work through the EPPIC project. 502
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and Th. Ulich (2008), Impact of different precipitation energies on NOx generation during 625
geomagnetic storms, J. Atmos Sol.-Terr. Phys., in press. 626
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October 1989 solar proton event on mesospheric odd nitrogen using a detailed ion and neutral 628
chemistry model, Ann. Geophys., 20, 1967-1976. 629
Verronen, P. T., A. Seppälä, M. A. Clilverd, C. J. Rodger, E. Kyrölä, C-F. Enell, Th. Ulich, E. 630
and Turunen (2005), Diurnal variation of ozone depletion during the October-November 2003 631
solar proton event, J. Geophys. Res., 110(A9), doi:10.1029/2004JA010932. 632
Verronen, P. T., A. Seppälä, E. Kyrölä, J. Tamminen, H. M. Pickett, E. and Turunen, Production 633
of odd hydrogen in the mesosphere during the january 2005 solar proton event (2006), 634
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radio waves, NBS Tech. Note 300, Nat. Inst. of Stand. and Technol., Gaithersburg, Md.. 637
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27
Xapsos, M. A., J. L. Barth, E. G. Stassinopoulos, S. R. Messenger, R. J. Walters, G. P. Summers, 638
and E. A. Burke (2000), Characterizing solar proton energy spectra for radiation effects 639
applications, IEEE Trans. Nuclear Sci., 47(6). 640
641
M. A. Clilverd and A. Seppälä, Physical Sciences Division, British Antarctic Survey 642
(NERC), High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ET, England, U.K. (e-mail: 643
macl@bas.ac.uk, annika.seppala@fmi.fi). 644
C. J. Rodger, Department of Physics, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New 645
Zealand. (email: crodger@physics.otago.ac.nz). 646
E. Turunen, Sodankylä Geophysical Observatory, University of Oulu, Sodankylä, Finland. 647
(email: esa@sgo.fi). 648
P. T. Verronen, Earth Observation, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503 (Erik 649
Palménin aukio 1), FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland. (email: pekka.verronen@fmi.fi). 650
651
RODGER ET AL.: ATMOSPHERIC IMPACT OF CARRINGTON SPE 652
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
28
653
Table 1. Weibull fitting parameters used in equation 1 to represent the differential SPE fluxes 654
of the Carrington event with the 4 different energy spectra as shown in Figure 1. 655
656
Date Φ
0 k α
4 August 1972 5.0033 × 1010 0.0236 1.108
29 September 1989 4.5751 × 1011 0.877 0.3841
19 October 1989 4.4280 × 1012 2.115 0.2815
23 March 1991 1.4039 × 1012 0.972 0.441
657
658
Figures 659
660
661
Figure 1. Comparison between the normalised differential fluences which have been used to 662
describe the Carrington event, based on four previous SPE. The values shown have been 663
normalised to the Carrington-level >30 MeV fluence of 1.9×1010 protons cm-2. [See the online 664
version for the color version of this figure]. 665
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
29
666
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
30
667
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
31
Figure 2. Proton fluxes used to describe the Carrington event SPE. The upper panel shows the 668
>30 MeV intensity-time proton profile [after Smart et al., Fig. 12, 2006]. The lower 3 panels 669
present the different time-varying differential proton fluxes used in this study to describe 670
Carrington-level SPE. [See the online version for the color version of this figure]. 671
672
673
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
32
Figure 3. The results of a SIC modeling run without any SPE-forcing (i.e., zero precipitating 674
proton fluxes), showing the calculated "normal" conditions for the northern (left) and southern 675
(right) hemispheres. Units are shown in log10[cm-3]. [See the online version for the color 676
version of this figure]. 677
678
679
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
33
680
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
34
Figure 4. Atmospheric ionization rates calculated from the SPE fluxes shown in the lower 3 681
panels of Figure 2, given in units of log10[cm-3s-1]. [See the online version for the color version 682
of this figure]. 683
684
685
Figure 5. SPE-driven changes in electron number density determined from the SIC model for 686
the varying SPE spectra, and show as the ratio to the control run (Figure 3). The left panels are 687
for the northern hemisphere, while the right are the southern hemisphere. [See the online 688
version for the color version of this figure]. 689
690
691
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
35
692
Figure 6. SPE-driven changes in odd hydrogen (HOx) determined from the SIC model for the 693
varying SPE spectra, and show as the ratio to the control run (Figure 3). The left panels are for 694
the northern hemisphere, while the right are the southern hemisphere. [See the online version 695
for the color version of this figure]. 696
697
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
36
698
Figure 7. SPE-driven changes in odd nitrogen (NOx) determined from the SIC model for the 699
varying SPE spectra, and show as the ratio to the control run (Figure 3). The left panels are for 700
the northern hemisphere, while the right are the southern hemisphere. [See the online version 701
for the color version of this figure]. 702
703
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
37
704
Figure 8. SPE-driven changes in odd oxygen (Ox) determined from the SIC model for the 705
varying SPE spectra, and show as the linear ratio to the control run (Figure 3). The left panels 706
are for the northern hemisphere, while the right are the southern hemisphere. [See the online 707
version for the color version of this figure]. 708
709
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
38
710
Figure 9. SPE-driven percentage changes in the >30 km altitude O3 total column for varying 711
Carrington SPE spectra. The upper panel shows the changes for the northern hemisphere (NH), 712
while the lower is for the southern hemisphere (SH). [See the online version for the color 713
version of this figure]. 714
715
Wednesday, September 17, 2008
39
716
717
Figure 10. Estimate of the severity of the Carrington-SPE forced HF polar blackout for the 718
August 1972 (left) and March 1991 (right) SPE-spectra. The upper panel shows the equivalent 719
peak X-ray fluxes in the 0.1-0.8 nm range which would cause the same ionospheric change 720
during a solar flare. The lower panel is the Highest Affected Frequency calculated from the 721
equivalent peak X-ray flux. The NOAA Radio Blackout Scale has been added for comparison. 722
[See the online version for the color version of this figure]. 723

1994: US Air Force Launches Top-Secret ‘Holographic Projector’ Research Program

According to a 1999 Washington Post website report, the US Air Force starts a research program this year to develop a “holographic projector” as a psychological warfare weapon. Holograms are three-dimensional images created by laser technology. The US military explored the idea of using holograms during the 1991 Gulf War to deceive the Iraqis, but did not pursue it for technical reasons. One idea was to project a hologram of Allah several hundred feet in size over Baghdad, but this would take a mirror in space more than a mile square, plus huge projectors and power sources. Additionally, there are strict Islamic proscriptions on the depiction of Allah. However, the US military did not abandon the concept. “The Gulf War hologram story might be dismissed were it not the case that [the Post] has learned that a super secret program was established in 1994 to pursue the very technology for PSYOPS [psychological operations] application. The “Holographic Projector” is described in a classified Air Force document as a system to “project information power from space… for special operations deception missions.” A 1996 study commissioned by a US Air Force panel called “Air Force 2025” shows how a future “Airborne Holographic Projector” might look like. In this illustration, a virtual aircraft is created to deceive the enemy as to the size and location of attacking forces.

http://www.historycommons.org/timeline.jsp?us_military_general_topic_areas=us_military_weaponizationOfSpace&timeline=us_military_tmln

Free Energy Looks Like This

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PowerPedia:Nikola Tesla
From PESWiki

For a listing of sites, see Directory:Nikola Tesla
Dr. Nikola Tesla


The man who invented the twentieth century.
Birthplace and date
9 July / 10 July, 1856
Smiljan, Croatia [then part of Austrian Empire]
Deathplace and date:
ca., January 7, 1943
New York City, New York, USA
Occupation:
inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer
Ethnicity and nationality:
Serbian-American
Dr. Nikola Tesla was one of the most brilliant inventors of history and was of an unusual intellectual vision. He is affectionately refered to as the "Father of Free Energy". Tesla was a world-renowned Serbian-American inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer, born in Smiljan, Austrian Empire (present day Croatia). Tesla is regarded as one of the most important inventors in history. He is also well known for his contributions to the discipline of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th century. His patents and theoretical work form the basis of modern alternating current electric power (AC) systems, including the polyphase power distribution systems and the AC motor, with which he helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.
In the United States, Tesla's fame rivaled that of any other inventor or scientist in history or popular culture. After his demonstration of wireless communication in 1893 and after being the victor in the "War of Currents", he was widely respected as America's greatest electrical engineer. Much of his early work pioneered modern electrical engineering and many of his discoveries were of groundbreaking importance. In 1947, the United States Supreme Court credited him as being the inventor of the radio. Never putting much focus on his finances, Tesla died impoverished and forgotten at the age of 86.
Tesla's legacy can be seen across modern civilization wherever electricity is used. Aside from his work on electromagnetism and engineering, Tesla is said to have contributed in varying degrees to the fields of robotics, ballistics, computer science, nuclear physics, and theoretical physics. In his later years, Tesla was regarded as a mad scientist and became noted for making bizarre claims about possible scientific developments. Many of his achievements have been used, with some controversy, to support various pseudosciences, UFO theories, and New Age occultism. Many contemporary admirers of Tesla have deemed him the man who invented the twentieth century.

Table of contents [showhide]
1 Introduction
2 Early years
2.1 Coming to America
2.2 War of the Currents
2.3 Harnessing Niagara
3 Middle years
3.1 High Frequency High Voltage
3.2 Robots and Telautomatics
3.3 Colorado Springs, Colorado
3.4 Tower of Dreams
3.5 Who Invented Radio?
3.6 Turbines and pumps
4 Later years
4.1 World War I to World War II
4.2 Tesla's Pierce-Arrow
4.3 A Weapon to End War
4.4 Extraterrestrial Radio Transmitter
4.5 Dynamic Theory of Gravity
5 Death and afterwards
6 Personal views
6.1 Quotes
7 Relations and friendships
8 Recognition and honors
9 Further readings and films
9.1 Patents
9.2 Articles (pre-1900)
9.3 Books
9.4 Movies and Films
9.5 Magazines
10 Sources, resources, and references
11 Modern news articles
12 Directories
13 See Also

Introduction
Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night: God said, "Let Tesla be", and all was light.
— B.A. Behrend, AIEE annual meeting, New York City, May 18, 1917.

Tesla writing and research, from his patents to his theoretical work, provide the
foundation to the basis for modern industrial systems. Tesla ushered in the
Second Industrial Revolution and his research continue to provide insights to
innovation yet to be exploited. (Image from the Nikola Tesla Museum (http://www.tesla-museum.org/))
Dr. Tesla was of unusual intellectual brilliance. He had a general mental capability that could reason, plan, and solve problems in his head. He could think abstractly and comprehend ideas without putting pen to paper. His patents (over 100 in the United States) and theoretical work still form the basis for modern alternating current electric power systems (including the polyphase power distribution system). Tesla helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution. Yet he hardly gets a footnote in our public school textbooks
In his early years, he enjoy widespread fame, a person who was widely recognized in a high society, and in culture, large part of professional material of the publishing industries focues on Tesla's announcements. He was highly reguarded in the annuals of history. Tesla's name was a byword for innovation and practical achievement. His name was one of the most recognizable in the world, a magician who conjured up technical feats. Tesla's vision was to find a means to provide humanity the means for unlimited energy. He gave his life to make real these plans, while others made fortunes with his inventions.
Tesla is most famous for conceiving the rotating magnetic field principle (1882) and then using it to invent the induction motor together with the accompanying alternating current long-distance electrical transmission system (1888). His patents and theoretical work still form the basis for modern alternating current electric power(AC) systems including the polyphase power distribution system. He developed numerous other electrical and mechanical devices including the fundamental principles and machinery of wireless technology, the high frequency alternator, the "AND" logic gate and the Tesla coil, as well as other devices such as the bladeless turbine, devices for high voltage discharges, and the bifilar coil. He developed various devices that use rotating magnetic fields, the fundamental devices and systems of wireless communication (legal priority for the invention of radio), radio frequency oscillators, devices for voltage magnification by standing waves, robotics, devices for x-rays, and devices for ionized gases. Tesla later developed devices for high field emission, devices for charged particle beams, methods for providing extremely low level of resistance to the passage of electrical current, means for increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations, voltage multiplication circuitry, devices for lightning protection, and the VTOL aircraft.
Tesla toward the end of his life was regarded as a mad scientist. Tesla was mocked by his contemporaries and he wound up destitute and forgotten. Why is this? He wanted to distribute power freely to the entire globe, and he had the technology developed to do so. The problem with his proposal is that there would be no metering to make money off of each watt distributed -- no way to maintain control from the population. He was blacklisted from the mainstream. Although he was awarded hundred of patents worldwide, he died in poverty. A hundred years later, we are still playing catch-up. His legacy can been seen across modern civilization. Tesla was ahead of his time, many of Tesla's ideas and concepts are just only recently coming to fruition.
We think of his contribution much oftener than that of Ampere and Ohm [...] the induction motor and our power system are enduring monuments to Nikola Tesla.
— Dr. E. F. W. Alexanderson
Tesla was (and is) "the common man's Einstein". Real scientists mention him because his name is attached fundementally to much of the underpinning of our modern society, to the induction coil, and a SI physical unit. The latter seems to have been adopted because of his varied and wide contributions to science and engineering in general. He identified the basic idea for the rotary induction motor, which was missed by others (in devices such as the 19th-century Wheatstone patent), and the basic circuit for the 'Tesla coil' (an inprovement on more primative circuit that can be seen in the 9th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica (circa 1860)). The history of modern radio dates to Tesla's work, as he consolidated and put into practival usefulness previous research. Among the reasons for his fame is that he was good at conveying idea to the general public and businessmen who would then utilize this technology.

Early years


Nikola Tesla's home in Smiljan, Croatia.
Tesla was born "at the stroke of midnight" in 1856 with lightning striking during a summer storm (the first moment of July 10). The midwife commented, "He'll be a child of the storm," to which his mother replied, "No, of light." He was born in Smiljan near Gospić in Croatia, Lika, (the Military Frontier of the Austria-Hungary, now in Croatia). Smiljan is a village in the mountainous region of Lika, Croatia. It is located seven kilometers west of Gospić, and fifteen kilometers from the highway Zagreb-Split; its population is 446 (2001). Smiljan is known best for being the birthplace of Nikola Tesla on July 10, 1856. Nowdays, Tesla's birth house, together with the church and the surrounding area represents a memeorial complex with various exhibits of Tesla's inventions and a museum where the details of the discoverer's life are shown. There is also a congress hall in a nearby building.
Tesla's baptismal name was ?иколай (Nikola). His Baptism Certificate reports that he was born on June 28 (Julian calendar; July 10 in the Gregorian calendar) 1856. he was christened by the Serbian orthodox priest, Toma Oklobdžija. Tesla was baptised in the Old Slavonic Church rite.
His father was Rev. Milutin Tesla, a Serbian priest in the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci which gathered the Serbs of the "Greek-rite" as they were legally referred to in Habsburg Monarchy at the time (Vlach Orthodox; Metropolitanate of Karlovci). His father's church in Gospić was destroyed in the 1990s[1] (http://www.eparhija-gornjokarlovacka.hr/Images/Eparhija/Gospic/Gospic4.jpg). His mother was ?uka Mandić, a housewife talented in making home craft tools. Nikola was one of five children, having one brother and three sisters. His godfather, Jovan Drenovac, was a Captain in the Krajina army. His family moved to Gospić in 1862.
Dr. Tesla's education:

Elementary school
Gospić (Austria-Hungary, now Croatia)
Secondary school
Karlovac (Austria-Hungary, now Croatia)
Undergraduate studies
Baccalaureate of Physics
Austrian Polytechnic Institute (Graz)
Baccalaureate of Mathematics
Austrian Polytechnic Institute (Graz)
Baccalaureate of Mechanical Engineering
Austrian Polytechnic Institute (Graz)
Baccalaureate of Electrical Engineering
Austrian Polytechnic Institute (Graz)
Graduate studies
Physics
University of Prague (Prague)
Tesla went to school in Karlovac (then Austria-Hungary), then studied electrical engineering at the Austria Politechnic in Graz, Austria (1875). While there, he studied the uses of alternating current. In 1881 he moved to Budapest to work for the telegraph company, American Telephone Company. On the opening of the telephone exchange in Budapest, 1881, Tesla became the chief electrician to the company, later engineer to the Yugoslav government and the country's first telephone system. He also developed a telephone repeater (sometimes called an amplifier) [ed., this was one of the first wireless telephones]. The device could act as an audio speaker (not an audio transducer). Tesla was also fascinated by the Crookes radiometer, believeing that it was a most wonderful invention.

The device had its resonance tuned to a particular frequency of other repeaters to communicate between each. In 1916, Tesla described the prior developed audio transducers. According to Tesla, it was the:
"... simplest ways [to detect the radiant energy ...] the low frequency gave audible notes. [... in a field, there was] placed a conductor, a wire or a coil, and then Tesla would get a note [...] characteristics of the audible note".
The audible sounds were of the quality of the telephones diaphragms of that period of time. The invention was never patented nor released publicly (till years later by Tesla himself). The device also contained the characteristics of modern wireless telephones.
For a while he stayed in Maribor. He was employed at his first job as an assistant engineer. Tesla suffered a nervous breakdown during this time. In 1882 he moved to Paris to work as an engineer for the Continental Edison Company. He worked designing improvements to electric equipment. In the same year, Tesla conceived of the induction motor and began developing various devices that use rotating magnetic fields (for which he received patents in 1888). Tesla visualized the rotating fields and thereby designed the induction motor.
Tesla hastened from Paris to his mother's side as she lay dying, arriving hours before her death in 1882. Her last words to him were, "You've arrived, Nidzo, my pride." After her death, Tesla fell ill. He spent two to three weeks recuperating in Gospić and the village of Tomingaj near Gra�?, the birthplace of his mother. All his life, Tesla kept a home-spun embroidered travel bag from his mother. *[According to John J. O'Neill in his book "Prodigal Genius", Tesla's mother died in 1892. He rushed to her side not long after giving his famous lecture "Experiments with Alternating Currents of High Potential and High Frequency" delivered before the Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, February 1892. His father died sometime between 1878 and 1881.]

Coming to America
In 1884 Tesla moved to the United States of America to accept a job with the Edison Company in New York City. He arrived in the US with 4 cents to his name, a book of poetry, and a letter of recommendation from Charles Batchelor (his manager in his previous job) to Thomas Edison. The letter read simply "I know two great men, and you are one of them. This young man is the other". Tesla's work for Edison began with simple electrical engineering. Eventually Tesla earned the respect of Edison and offered to undertake a complete re-design of the Edison company's DC dynamos. After Tesla described the nature of the benefits from his proposed modifications, Edison offered him US$50,000 if they were successfully completed.
Tesla worked nearly a year to redesign them and gave the Edison company several enormously profitable new patents in the process. When Tesla inquired about the $50,000, Edison replied to him, "Tesla, you don't understand our American humor", and reneged on his agreement, offering a raise in Tesla's salary of $10 per week as a compromise - at which rate it would have taken almost 100 years to earn the money Edison had originally promised. Tesla resigned on the spot. In some accounts of the final confrontation, Tesla did not say a single word to Edison but simply turned his back on the inventor and walked off the premises. Edison would receive US patent 328572 for an improved commutator and, later, would gain US patent 373584 for a dynamo-electric machine (which includes an extra coil and utilizes a field of force) among other patents which Tesla may be responsible for.
In 1886, Tesla formed his own company, Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. The initial financial investors disagreed with Tesla on his plan for an alternating current motor and eventually relieved him of his duties at the company. Tesla worked in New York as a common laborer from 1886 to 1887 to feed himself and raise capital for his next project. In 1887, he constructed the initial brushless alternate-current induction motor, which he demonstrated to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now IEEE) in 1888. In the same year, he developed the principles of his Tesla coil and began working with George Westinghouse at Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company's Pittsburgh labs. Westinghouse listened to his ideas for polyphase systems which would allow transmission of alternating current electricity over large distances.

War of the Currents
In the "War of Currents" era in the late 1880s, Nikola Tesla and Thomas Edison became adversaries due to Edison's promotion of direct current (DC) for electric power distribution over the more efficient alternating current (AC) advocated by Tesla. During the initial years of electricity distribution, Edison's direct current was the standard for the United States and Edison was not disposed to lose all his patent royalties. Direct current worked well for the incandescent lamps that were the principal load of the day. From his work with rotary magnetic fields, Tesla devised a system for generation, transmission, and use of AC power. He partnered with George Westinghouse to commercialize this system. Westinghouse had previously bought the rights to Tesla's polyphase system patents and other patents for AC transformers from Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs.

Tesla's Patents provide a insight into his genius. This image is from U.S. Patent 390721 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=390721) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=390721); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=390721)).
Until Tesla invented the induction motor, AC's advantages for long distance high voltage transmission were counterbalanced by the inability to operate motors on AC. The direct current electric power transmission system had severe limitations that were solved by the use of alternating current. High loads of direct current could rarely be transmitted for distances of greater than one mile without introducing excessive voltage drops. The three-wire distribution system provided some improvement in voltage drop and conductor sizes, but did not eliminate the problem. Edison's response to the DC system limitations was to generate power close to where it was consumed (distributed generation) and install more wires to handle the growing demand for electricity, but this solution proved to be costly, impractical, and unmanageable.
Direct current could not easily be changed to higher or lower voltages. This meant that separate electrical lines had to be installed in order to supply power to appliances that use different voltages, for example, lighting and electric motors. This led to a greater number of wires to lay and maintain, wasting money and introducing unnecessary hazards. A number of deaths from the Great Blizzard of '88 were attributed to collapsing power lines that cluttered cities running DC power grids. High voltage AC could be transmitted over long distances with lower voltage drops (thus greater transmission efficiency), and then conveniently stepped down to low voltages for use in homes and factories. When Tesla introduced a system for alternating current generators, transformers, motors, wires, and lights in November and December of 1887, it became clear that AC was the future of electric power distribution.
Edison went on to carry out a campaign to discourage the use of alternating current. Edison personally presided over several executions of animals, primarily stray cats and dogs, to demonstrate to the press that his system of direct current was safer than that of alternating current. Edison's series of animal executions peaked with the electrocution of Topsy the Elephant. He also tried to popularize the term for being electrocuted as being "Westinghoused".
Edison opposed capital punishment, but his desire to disparage the system of alternating current led to the invention of the electric chair. Edison (or some of his employees) used AC to construct the first electric chair for the state of New York in order to promote the idea that alternating current was deadlier than DC. It is a popular belief, some would say misconception, that Edison alone invented the electric chair solely as a means of impressing the public that AC was more dangerous than DC, and would therefore be the logical choice for electrocutions. The chair was developed by a few of his employees, in particular Harold P. Brown, while working under Edison at Menlo Park.
When the chair was first used, the technicians on hand misjudged the voltage needed to kill the condemned prisoner, William Kemmler. The first jolt of electricity, delivered on August 6, 1890, was not enough to kill Kemmler, and left him only badly injured. The procedure had to be repeated and a reporter on hand described it as "an awful spectacle, far worse than hanging". George Westinghouse commented: "They would have done better using an axe." Low frequency (50 - 60 Hz) AC currents can be more dangerous than similar levels of DC current since the alternating fluctuations can cause the heart to lose coordination, inducing ventricular fibrillation, which then rapidly leads to death. However any practical distribution system will use voltage levels quite sufficient to ensure a dangerous amount of current will flow, whether it uses alternating or direct current. Since the precautions against electrocution are similar, ultimately, the advantages of AC power transmission outweighed this theoretical risk, and it was eventually adopted as the standard.

Harnessing Niagara
In 1883, the Niagara Falls Power Company, a descendant of Schoellkopf's firm, hired George Westinghouse to design a system to generate alternating current. When Tesla, for whom a memorial was later built at Niagara Falls, implemented the three-phase system of alternating current power transmission, distant transfer of electricity became possible. By 1896, with financing from moguls like J.P. Morgan, John Jacob Astor IV, and the Vanderbilts, they had constructed giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 horsepower (75 MW), and were sending power as far as Buffalo, twenty miles (32 km) away. Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the Falls, employing both domestic and American firms in their efforts. The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara's energy to various parts of that province. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of the United States and Canada before returning to the river well past the Falls. Some doubted that the system would generate enough electricity to power industry in Buffalo. Tesla was sure it would work, saying that Niagara Falls had the ability to power the entire eastern U.S. On November 16, 1896, electrical power was sent from Niagara Falls to industries in Buffalo from the hydroelectric generators at the Edward Dean Adams Station. The hydroelectric generators were built by Westinghouse Electric Corporation using Tesla's AC system patent. The nameplates on the generators bear Tesla's name. He also set the 60 hertz standard for North America. It took five years to complete the whole facility.

Middle years

High Frequency High Voltage


Tesla 1891 lecture.
In April of 1887, Tesla began investigating what would later be called X-rays using his own single node vacuum tubes (similar to his U.S. Patent 514170 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=514170) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=514170); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=514170))). This device differed from other early X-ray tubes in that they had no target electrode. The modern term for the phenomenon produced by this device is bremsstrahlung (or braking radiation). We now know that this device operated by emitting electrons from the single electrode through a combination of field emission and thermionic emission. Once liberated, electrons are strongly repelled by the high electric field near the electrode during negative voltage peaks from the oscillating HV output of the Tesla Coil, generating X-rays as they collide with the glass envelope. He also used Geissler tubes. By 1892, Tesla became aware of what Wilhelm Röntgen later identified as effects of X-rays.
Tesla commented on the hazards of working with single node X-ray producing devices, incorrectly attributing the skin damage to ozone rather than the radiation:
"As to the hurtful actions on the skin ... I note that they have been misinterpreted ... They are not due to the Röntgen rays, but merely to the ozone generated in contact with the skin. Nitrous acid may also be responsible, but to a small extent". (Tesla, in Electrical Review, 30 November 1895).
Tesla later observed an assistant severely "burnt" by X-rays in his lab. He performed several experiments (including photographing the bones of his hand; later, he sent these images to Röntgen) but didn't make his findings widely known; much of his research was lost in the 1895 Houston Street lab fire.


Tesla at East Houston Street lab (New York), with Roger Boskovich's book "Theoria Philosophiae Naturalis", in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency transformer.
In the spring of 1891, Tesla gave demonstrations with various machines and coils before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers at Columbia College. Following the initial research of voltage and frequency by William Crookes, Tesla developed a series of coils that produced high-voltage, high-frequency currents. In the majority of Tesla's experiments, he used machinery of his own design to produce the Tesla effect. These early coils would use the "disruptive" action of a spark gap in their operation. The setup can be duplicated by a Ruhmkorff coil, two condensers (now called capacitors), and a second, specially constructed, disruptive coil.
In U.S. Patent 454622 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=454622) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=454622); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=454622)), System of Electric Lighting (1891 June 23), Tesla described this early disruptive coil. It was devised for the purpose of converting and supplying electrical energy in a form suited for the production of certain novel electrical phenomena, which require currents of higher frequency and potential. It also specified an energy storage capacitor and discharger mechanism on the primary side of a radio-frequency transformer. This is the first-ever disclosure of a practical RF power supply capable of exciting an antenna to emit powerful electromagnetic radiation.
On July 30, 1891, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States at the age of 35. Tesla established his 35 South Fifth Avenue laboratory in New York during this same year. Later, Tesla would establish his Houston Street laboratory in New York at 46 E. Houston Street. He lit vacuum tubes wirelessly at both of the New York locations, providing evidence for the potential of wireless power transmission. Some of Tesla's closest friends were artists. He befriended Century Magazine editor Robert Underwood Johnson, who adapted several Serbian poems of Jovan Jovanović Zmaj (which Tesla translated). Also during this time, Tesla was influenced by the Vedic philosophy teachings of the Swami Vivekananda.
At the 1893 World's Fair, the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, an international exposition was held which for the first time devoted a building to electrical exhibits. It was a historic event as Tesla and George Westinghouse introduced visitors to AC power by using it to illuminate the Exposition. In protest, Thomas Edison would not allow use of any of his lightbulbs for this event (Westinghouse sidestepped this by developing a double-stopper lamp). On display were Tesla's fluorescent lights and single node bulbs. As if lighting the Exposition was not enough, Tesla explained the principles of the rotating magnetic field and induction motor by demonstrating how to make an egg (made of copper) stand on end in his demonstration of the device he constructed known as the "Egg of Columbus". It was used to demonstrate and explain the model principles of a magnetic vortex field and the induction motor

The World's Columbian Exposition (also called The Chicago World's Fair), a World's fair, was held in the U.S. city of Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' discovery of the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D.C., and St. Louis, Missouri, for the honor of hosting the fair. The fair had a profound effect on architecture, the arts, Chicago's self image, and American industrial optimism. The International Exposition was held in a building which for the first time was devoted to electrical exhibits. It was a historical moment and the beginning of a revolution, as Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse introduced the public to electrical power by providing alternating current to illuminate the Exposition. The general public observed firsthand the qualities and abilities of alternating current power. All the exhibits were from commercial enterprises. Thomas Edison, Brush, Western Electric, and Westinghouse had exhibits. General Electric Company (backed by Edison and J.P. Morgan) proposed to power the electric fair with direct current at the cost of one million dollars.
Westinghouse, armed with Tesla's alternating current system, proposed to illuminate the exposition for half that price. Tesla's high-frequency high-voltage lighting produced more efficient light with quantitatively less heat. A two-phase induction motor was driven by current from the main generators to power the system. Edison tried to prevent the use of his light bulbs in Tesla's works. Westinghouse's proposal was chosen over the less efficient (but safer) direct current system to power the fair. General Electric banned the use of Edison's lamps in Westinghouse's plan, in retaliation for losing the bid. Westinghouse's company quickly designed a double-stopper lightbulb (sidestepping Edison's patents) and was able to light the fair.
The Westinghouse Company displayed several polyphase systems. The exhibits included a switchboard, polyphase generators, step-up transformers, transmission line, step-down transformers, commercial size induction motors and synchronous motors, and rotary direct current converters (including an operational railway motor). The working scaled system allowed the public a view of a system of polyphase power which could be transmitted over long distances, and be utilized, including the supply of direct current. Meters and other auxiliary devices were also present. Tesla displayed his phosphorescent lighting, powered without wires by high-frequency fields. Tesla displayed the first practical phosphorescent lamps (a precursor to fluorescent lamps). Tesla's lighting inventions exposed to high-frequency currents would bring the gases to incandescence. Tesla also displayed the first neon lights. His innovations in this type of light emission were not regularly patented.

Also among the exhibits was Tesla's demonstration, most notably the "Egg of Columbus". This device explains the principles of the rotating magnetic field and his induction motor. The Egg of Columbus consisted of a polyphase field coil underneath a plate with a copper egg positioned over the top. When the sequence of coils were energized, the magnetic field arrangement inductively created a rotation on the egg and made it stand up on end (appearing to resist gravity). On August 25, Elisha Gray introduced Tesla for a delivery of a lecture on mechanical and electrical oscillators. Tesla explained his work for efficiently increasing the work at high frequency of reciprocation. As Electrical Congress members listened, Tesla delineated mechanisms which could produce oscillations of constant periods irrespective of the pressure applied and irrespective of frictional losses and loads. He continued to explain the working mean of the production of constant period electric currents (not resorting to spark gaps or breaks), and how to produce these with mechanisms which are reliable. The successful demonstration of alternating current lighting at the Exposition dispelled doubts about the usefulness of the polyphase alternating current system developed by Westinghouse and Tesla.
Tesla's AC replaced DC in many instances of generation and power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution. Edison's inventions using DC ultimately lost to AC devices proposed by others: primarily Tesla's polyphase systems, and also other contributors, such as Charles Proteus Steinmetz (of General Electric). Tesla's Niagara Falls system marked the end of Edison's roadmap for electrical transmission and was a turning point in the acceptance of alternating current. Eventually, Edison's General Electric company converted to the AC system and began manufacture of AC machines. As a result of the "War of Currents," Edison and Westinghouse were almost bankrupt, so in 1897, Tesla released Westinghouse from contract, providing Westinghouse a break from Tesla's patent royalties. Also in 1897, Tesla researched radiation which led to setting up the basic formulation of cosmic rays.
When Tesla was 36 years old, the first patents concerning the polyphase power system were granted. He continued research of the system and rotating magnetic field principles. Tesla served as the vice president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now part of the IEEE) from 1892 to 1894. From 1893 to 1895, he investigated high frequency alternating currents. He generated AC of one million volts using a conical Tesla coil and investigated the skin effect in conductors, designed tuned circuits, invented a machine for inducing sleep, cordless gas discharge lamps, and transmitted electromagnetic energy without wires, effectively building the first radio transmitter. In St. Louis, Missouri, Tesla made a demonstration related to radio communication in 1893. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated in detail its principles. Tesla's demonstrations were written about widely through various media outlets.


Mark Twain participating in an experiment in Tesla's laboratory. Century Magazine, April 1895.
Another early Tesla coil was protected in 1897 by U.S. Patent 0593138 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=0593138) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=0593138); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=0593138)), "Electrical Transformer". This transformer developed (or converted) currents of high potential and was comprised of a primary and secondary coil (optionally, one terminal of the secondary could be electrically connected with the primary; similar to modern ignition coils). This Tesla coil had the secondary being inside of, and surrounded by, the convolutions of the primary coil. This Tesla coil comprised of a primary and secondary wound in the form of a flat spiral. One coil, the secondary in step up transformation, of the device consisted of a longer fine-wire. The apparatus was also connected to the Earth when the coil was in use.
Also when Tesla was 41 years old, he filed the first basic radio patent (U.S. Patent 645576 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=645576) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=645576); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=645576))). A year later, Tesla devised an "electric igniter" or spark plug for Internal combustion gasoline engines. He gained U.S. Patent 609250, "Electrical Igniter for Gas Engines", on this mechanical ignition system. Tesla lived in the former Gerlach Hotel, renamed The Radio Wave building, at 49 W 27th St.(between Broadway and Sixth Avenue), Lower Manhattan, before the end of the century where he conducted the radio wave experiments. A commemorative plaque was placed on the building in 1977 to honor his work.

Robots and Telautomatics
In 1897 , he demonstrated a radio controlled boat to the US military, believing that the military would want things such as radio controlled torpedoes. Tesla developed the "Art of Telautomatics", a form of robotics. In 1898, a radio-controlled boat was demonstrated to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden. These devices had an innovative coherer and a series of logic gates. Radio remote control remained a novelty until the 1960s.

Colorado Springs, Colorado
In 1899, Tesla decided to move and began research in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where he could have room for his high-voltage high-frequency experiments.He chose this location primarily because of the frequent thunderstorms, the high altitude (where the air, being at a lower pressure, had a lower dielectric breakdown strength, making it easier to ionize), and the dryness of the air (minimizing leakage of electric charge through insulators). Also, the property was free and electric power available from the El Paso Power Company. Today, magnetic intensity charts also show that the ground around his lab possesses a denser magnetic field than the surrounding area. Tesla reached Colorado Springs on May 17, 1899. Upon his arrival he told reporters that he was conducting experiments transmitting signals from Pikes Peak to Paris.
Tesla kept a diary of his experiments in the Colorado Springs lab where he spent nearly nine months. It consists of 500 pages of handwritten notes and nearly 200 drawings, recorded chronologically between June 1, 1899 and January 7, 1900, as the work occurred, containing explanations of his experiments. Tesla's diary contains explanations of his experiments concerning the ionosphere and the ground's telluric currents via transverse waves and longitudinal waves. He was developing a system for wireless telegraphy, telephony and the transmission of power, experimented with high-voltage electricity and the possibility of wireless transmitting and distributing large amounts of electrical energy over long distances. He also conceived a system for geophysical exploration--seismology--which he called telegeodynamics, based on his reciprocating mechanical oscillator patented in 1894, and explained that a long sequence of small explosions could be used to find ore and create earthquakes large enough to destroy the Earth. He did not experiment with this as he felt there would not be "a desirable outcome".


Colorado Springs photograph during an experiment (December 31, 1899). Several million volts of lightning cascade through a portion of the laboratory. Tesla is portaryed as deep into though on a book in the background. This is a double exposure to signify the extent of the discharge in the complex.
Tesla, a local contractor, and several assistants commenced the construction of the laboratory shortly after arriving in Colorado Springs. The lab was established on Knob Hill, east of the Colorado School for the Deaf and Blind and one mile (1.6 km) east of downtown. Its primary purposes were experiments with high frequency electricity and other phenomena and, secondarily, research into wireless transmission of electrical power. Tesla's design of the lab was a building fifty feet by sixty feet (15 by 18 m) with eighty-foot (24 m) ceilings. A one-hundred-forty-two foot (43 m) conducting aerial with a thirty-inch (76 cm) copper-foil covered wooden ball was erected on the roof. The roof was rolled back to prevent fire from sparks and other dangerous effects of the experiments. The laboratory had sensitive instruments and equipment.
The lab possessed the largest Tesla Coil ever built, fifty-two feet (16 m) in diameter, known as the Magnifying Transmitter. Not identical to a classic Tesla Coil, it was a three-coil magnifying system requiring different forms of analysis than lumped-constant coupled resonant coils presently described to most. It resonated at a natural quarter wavelength frequency and could work in a continuous-wave mode and in a partially damped-wave resonant mode. According to accounts, Tesla used it to transmit tens of thousands of watts of power wirelessly; it could generate millions of volts of electricity and produce lightning bolts more than one-hundred feet (30 m) long. At his lab, Tesla proved that the earth was a conductor, and he produced artificial lightning (with discharges consisting of millions of volts, and up to 135 feet long). Tesla posted a large fence around it with a sign "Keep Out - Great Danger".
Tesla became the first man to create electrical effects on the scale of lightning. The Magnifying Transmitter produced thunder which was heard as far away as Cripple Creek. People near the lab would observe sparks emitting from the ground to their feet and through their shoes. Some have observed electrical sparks from the fire hydrants (Tesla for a time grounded out to the plumbing of the city). The area around the laboratory would glow with a blue corona (similar to St. Elmo's Fire). One of Tesla's experiments with the Magnifying Transmitter destroyed Colorado Springs Electric Company's generator by backfeeding the city's power generators, and blacked out the city. The company denied Tesla further access to the backup generator's feed if he did not repair the primary generator at his own expense; it was working again in a few days.

See the PowerPedia Article: Magnifying Transmitter

Reproductions of Tesla's receivers and coherer circuits show an unpredicted level of complexity (e.g., distributed high-Q helical resonators, radio frequency feedback, crude heterodyne effects, and regeneration techniques). Tesla also constructed many smaller resonance transformers and discovered the concept of tuned electrical circuits. He also developed a number of coherers for separating and perceiving electromagnetic waves and designed rotating coherers which he used to detect the unique types of electromagnetic phenomenon he observed. They had a mechanism of geared wheels driven by a coiled spring-drive mechanism which rotated small glass cylinders. These experiments were the final stage of years of work on synchronized tuned electrical circuits.
These transceivers were constructed to demonstrate how signals could be "tuned in". Tesla logged in his diary on July 3, 1899 that a separate resonance transformer tuned to the same high frequency as a larger high-voltage resonance transformer would transceive energy from the larger coil, acting as a transmitter of wireless energy, which was used to confirm Tesla's patent for radio during later disputes in the courts. These air core high-frequency resonate coils were the predecessors of systems from radio to radar and medical magnetic resonance imaging devices.


Experimental proof of wireless transmission of electrical energy.
On July 3, 1899, Tesla discovered terrestrial stationary waves within the earth. He demonstrated that the Earth behaves as a smooth polished conductor and possesses electrical vibrations. He experimented with waves characterized by a lack of vibration at points, between which areas of maximum vibration occur periodically. These standing waves were produced by confining waves within constructed conductive boundaries. Tesla demonstrated that the Earth could respond at predescribed frequencies of electrical vibrations. At this time, Tesla realized that it was possible to transceive power around the globe.
The investigations of atmospheric electricity involved observing lightning signals via his receivers. Tesla stated that he observed stationary waves during this time. Tesla conducted experiments contributing to the understanding of electromagnetic propagation and the Earth's resonance. It is well documented (from various photos from the time) that he lit hundreds of lamps wirelessly at a distance of up to twenty-five miles (40 km). He transmitted signals several kilometres and lit neon tubes conducting through the ground. He researched ways to transmit energy wirelessly over long distances (utilizing the ionosphere and the ground's telluric currents via transverse waves, to a lesser extent, and, more readily, longitudinal waves). He transmitted extremely low frequencies through the ground as well as between the earth's surface and the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. He recieved patents on wireless that developed standing waves by this method. In his experiments, he made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments and discovered that the resonant frequency of the Earth was approximately 8 Hz (Hertz). In the 1950s, researchers confirmed resonant frequency was in this range (interesting to note, Theta brain waves also cycle in this range).
In the Colorado Springs lab, Tesla recorded what he concluded were extraterrestrial radio signals and announced his findings in some of the scientific journals of the time. [2] (http://www.teslasociety.com/mars2.htm) His announcements and data were rejected by the scientific community who did not believe him. He notes measurements of repetitive signals from his receiver which are substantially different from the signals he had noted from storms and earth noise. Specifically, he later recalled that the signals appeared in groups of clicks 1, 2, 3, and 4 clicks together. He stated in the article "A Giant Eye to See Round the World", of 25 February 1923, that:
"Twenty-two years ago, while experimenting in Colorado with a wireless power plant, I obtained extraordinary experimental evidence of the existence of life on Mars. I had perfected a wireless receiver of extraordinary sensitiveness, far beyond anything known, and I caught signals which I interpreted as meaning 1--2--3--4. I believe the Martians used numbers for communication because numbers are universal." Albany Telegram — 25 February 1923 [3] (http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/articles/19230225.doc)
Clearly, Tesla felt the signal groups originated on the planet Mars. In 1996 Corum and Corum published an analysis of Jovian plasma torus signals which indicate that there was a correspondence between the setting of Mars at Colorado Springs, and the cessation of signals from Jupiter in the summer of 1899 when Tesla was there. [4] (http://www.teslasociety.com/mars.pdf) Further, analysis by the Corums indicate that Tesla's transceiver was sensitive in the 18 kHz gap in the Kennelly-Heaviside layer which would have allowed that reception from Jupiter. Therefore, there is evidence the signals Tesla noticed came from Jupiter, among other possible sources. In 1996 Corum and Corum published an analysis of Jovian plasma torus signals which indicate that there was a correspondence between the setting of Mars at Colorado Springs, and the cessation of signals from Jupiter in the summer of 1899 when Tesla was there. Tesla spent the latter part of his life trying to signal Mars.
It is important to recognize that when he says he "recorded" these signals, it is meant that he wrote down the data and his impressions of what he had heard. He did release reports at the time. Tesla’s initial announcement of the existence of extraterrestrial radio signals was in 1899. [5] (http://www.teslasociety.com/cosmos.htm) In March of 1907, Tesla wrote about signaling to Mars in Harvard Magazine and how it was a problem of electrical engineering. [6] (http://www.teslasociety.com/signaltomars.htm) Additional descriptions come from remembrances twenty years later. All this was met with resistance and disbelief by his contemporaries.

Tower of Dreams
Tesla left Colorado Springs on January 7, 1900. The lab was torn down, broken up, and its contents sold to pay debts. The Colorado experiments prepared Tesla for his next project, the establishment of a wireless power transmission facility that would be known as Wardenclyffe. On March 21, 1900, Tesla was granted US685012 patent for the means for increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations. The United States Patent Office classification system currently assigns this patent to the primary Class 178/43 ("telegraphy/space induction"), although the other applicable classes include 505/825 ("low temperature superconductivity-related apparatus"). A few years later, George Westinghouse and J. P. Morgan stopped funding Tesla's research when Tesla showed him that he could offer free electricity to the whole world by simply "ramming a stick in the earth in your backyard". Westinghouse said he would go bankrupt if that happened.


Wardenclyffe tower and laboratory. The building was designed by Stanford White, famous architect and personal friend of Tesla. Tesla intended this to be a broadcasting system in the world and transmission systetm of electricity to the whole globe without wires.
Nikola Tesla began planning the Wardenclyffe Tower facility ca. 1898, and in 1901, construction began on the land near Long Island Sound. Architect Stanford White designed the Wardenclyffe facility main building. The tower was designed by W.D. Crow, an associate of White. Funding for Tesla's project was provided by influential industrialists and other venture capitalists. The project was initially backed by the wealthy J. P. Morgan (he had a substantial investment in the facility, initially investing $150,000).
In June 1902, Tesla moved his laboratory operations from his Houston Street laboratory to Wardenclyffe. However, in 1903, when the tower structure was near completion, it was still not yet functional due to last-minute design changes that introduced in an unintentional defect. When Morgan wanted to know "Where can I put the meter?", Tesla had no answer. Tesla's vision of free power did not agree with Morgan's worldview. Construction costs eventually exceeded the money provided by Morgan, and additional financiers were reluctant to come forth. By July 1904, Morgan (and the other investors) finally decided they would not provide any additional financing. Morgan also encouraged other investors to avoid the project. In 1904, the US Patent Office reversed its decision and awarded Guglielmo Marconi the patent for radio. Tesla began his fight to re-acquire his radio patent. Later in 1907, Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize for radio. Tesla was deeply resentful. So in 1915, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Marconi. In May 1905, Tesla's patents on alternating current motors and other methods of power transmission expired, halting royalty payments and causing a severe reduction of funding to the Wardenclyffe Tower. In an attempt to find alternative funding, Tesla advertised the services of the Wardenclyffe facility, but he met with little success. By this time, Tesla had also designed the Tesla turbine at Wardenclyffe and produced Tesla coils for sale to various businesses.

See the PowerPedia Article: Wardenclyffe


Who Invented Radio?


Nikola Tesla (Sketch, 1893); 37 years old
Tesla always disputed the claim that Marconi invented radio and he gave a simple reason for this position. It was that radio is not an invention:
"It was evident to me in 1888 that wireless transmission of energy, if it could ever be accomplished, is not an invention; it is an art. Bell's telephone, Edison's phonograph, or my induction motor were inventions, but the wireless transmission of energy is an art that requires a great many inventions in combination.", (Nikola Tesla, 1916, in Ed. Anderson, Leland, 'Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents And Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Energy, Published 1992.
Seen in this context, some believe that it is Tesla's lecture and patent record from 1888 onwards that contains the fundamental information on the '... great many inventions ...' that form the basis for modern radio and wireless technology.
By 1905, since Tesla could not find any more backers, most of the site's activity had to be shut down. The main hall continued to be used for blackface minstrel shows until October of that year. Employees were laid off in 1906, but parts of the building remained in use until 1907. In 1908, the property was foreclosed for the first time. Tesla procured a new mortgage from the proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, George C. Boldt. The facility was partially abandoned around 1911, the tower structure eventually becoming deteriorated. Between 1912 and 1915, Tesla's finances unraveled, and when the funders wanted to know how they were going to recapture their investments, Tesla was unable to give satisfactory answers. Newspaper headlines of the time labeled it "Tesla's million-dollar folly." The facility's main building was breached and vandalized around this time. Collapse of the Wardenclyffe project may have contributed to the mental breakdown Tesla experienced during this period. Coupled to the personal tragedy of Wardenclyffe was the earlier 1895 unexplained fire in Tesla's Houston Street laboratory. In this fire, he lost much of his equipment, notes and documents. This produced a state of severe depression for Tesla.
In 1915, legal ownership of the Wardenclyffe property was transferred to George Boldt for a $20,000 debt. Demolition (reportedly by the U.S. Govt.) and salvaging of the tower occurred in 1917. However, the main building remains standing to this day. Tesla was not in New York during the tower's destruction. George Boldt wished to make the property available for sale. New York papers reported that the tower had been destroyed by order of the government to prevent its use by foreign agents. In 1917, the United States government may have aided the destruction of the Wardenclyffe Tower, ostensibly because it was believed it could provide a navigational landmark for German submarines. Neither claim is known to have been substantiated. On April 20, 1922 Tesla lost an appeal of judgment versus his backers in the second foreclosure. This effectively locked Tesla out of any future development of the facility.
In 1915, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Marconi attempting, unsuccessfully, to obtain a court injunction against the claims of Marconi. Around 1916, Tesla filed for bankruptcy because he owed so much in back taxes. He was living in poverty. After Wardenclyffe, Tesla built the Telefunken Wireless Station in Sayville, Long Island. Some of what he wanted to achieve at Wardenclyffe was accomplished with the Telefunken Wireless. In 1917, the facility was seized and torn down by the Marines, because it was suspected that it could be used by German spies.
In the ongoing lawsuit regarding the patent battle was finally resolved in Tesla's favor in 1944, one year after his death. This decision was based on the facts of the prior work existing before the establishment of Marconi's patent. At the time, the United States Army was involved in a patent infringement lawsuit with Marconi regarding radio, leading some to posit that the government granted Tesla and others the formal recognition in order to nullify any claims Marconi would have to compensation (as the earlier award to Marconi nullified any claims Tesla would have had for compensation).
Since the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Marconi for radio in 1909, Thomas Edison and Tesla were mentioned as potential laureates to share the Nobel Prize of 1915 in an press dispatch, leading to one of several Nobel Prize controversies. It was believed that due to their animosity toward each other neither was given the award, despite their enormous scientific contributions. There is some indication that each sought to minimize the other one's achievements and right to win the award, that both refused to ever accept the award if the other received it first, and that both rejected any possibility of sharing it, as was rumour in the press at the time. In the following events after the rumors, neither Tesla nor Edison won the prize (although Edison did receive one of 38 possible bids in 1915, and Tesla did receive one bid out of 38 in 1937). Earlier, Tesla alone was rumored to the Nobel Prize of 1912. The rumored nomination for the 1912 Nobel Prize was primarily for his experiments with tuned circuits using high-voltage high-frequency resonant transformers. It was possible that Tesla was told of the plans of the physics award committee and let it be known that he would not share the award with Edison.

Turbines and pumps
On his 50th birthday in 1906, Tesla demonstrated his 200 hp (150 kW) 16,000 rpm Bladeless Turbine. During 1910-1911 at the Waterside Power Station in New York, several of his bladeless turbine engines were tested at 100-5000 hp. The Tesla turbine's bladeless design patented by Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless turbine because it utilizes the boundary layer effect and not by a fluid impacting the blades in a conventional turbine. The Tesla turbine is also known as the boundary layer turbine, cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl).

See the PowerPedia article: Tesla turbine


Later years

World War I to World War II
Prior to the First World War, Tesla looked overseas for investors to fund his research. When the war started, Tesla lost funding he was receiving from his European patents. Wardenclyffe Tower was also demolished towards the end of WWI. Tesla had predicted the relevant issues of the post-World War I environment (a war which theoretically ended) in a printed article (December 20, 1914). Tesla believed that the League of Nations was not a remedy for the times and issues. In 1915, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Marconi attempting, unsuccessfully, to obtain a court injunction against the claims of Marconi. Around 1916, Tesla filed for bankruptcy because he owed so much in back taxes. He was living in poverty.
Tesla started to exhibit pronounced symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the years following. He became obsessed with the number three. He often felt compelled to walk around a block three times before entering a building, demanded a stack of three folded cloth napkins beside his plate at every meal, etc. The nature of OCD was little understood at the time and no treatments were available, so his symptoms were considered by some to be evidence of partial insanity and this probably hurt what was left of his reputation. This obsessive-compulsive behavior may have originated from the observations over repeated polyphase systems in nature that Tesla researched. Referencing Tesla's developing obsessive-compulsive disorder, it has been concretely demonstrated that obsessive-compulsive disorder, once thought to be a mental illness, has conclusively been proven to be a physical illness. The origins may be viral in nature, perhaps related to a weakened immune system. Connecting his illness to his exposure to work may indeed be correct.


Tesla later worked on turbines among his other projects. Here he is in his lab in New York.
At this time, he was staying at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, renting in an arrangement for deferred payments. Eventually, the Wardenclyffe deed was turned over to George Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria to pay a $20,000 debt. In 1917, around the time that the Wardenclyffe Tower was demolished by Boldt to make the land a more viable real estate asset, Tesla received AIEE's highest honor, the Edison Medal. The irony of this honor was probably not lost on Tesla.
Tesla, in August 1917, first established principles regarding frequency and power level for the first primitive radar units in 1934. Emile Girardeau, working with the first French radar systems, stated he was building radar systems "conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla". By the twenties, Tesla was reportedly negotiating with the United Kingdom government under Prime Minister Chamberlain about a ray system. Tesla had also stated that efforts had been made to steal the "death ray" (though they had failed). The Chamberlain government was removed, though, before any final negotiations occurred. The incoming Baldwin government found no use for Tesla's suggestions and ended negotiations. In 1925, the property ownership of Wardenclyffe was transferred to Walter L. Johnson of Brooklyn.
On Tesla's seventy-fifth birthday in 1931, Time magazine put him on its cover. [7] (http://www.teslasociety.com/time.jpg) The cover caption noted his contribution to electrical power generation. In 1935, many of Marconi's patents relating to the radio were declared invalid by the United States Court of Claims. The Court of Claims decided that the prior work of Tesla (specifically U.S. Patent 645576 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=645576) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=645576); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=645576)) and U.S. Patent 649621 (http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=649621) (G.patent (http://www.google.com/patents?q=649621); PDF (http://www.pat2pdf.org/pat2pdf/foo.pl?number=649621))) had anticipated Marconi's later works. Tesla got his last patent in 1928 on January 3, an apparatus for aerial transportation which was the first instance of VTOL aircraft. In 1934, Tesla wrote to consul Janković of his homeland. The letter contained the message of gratitude to Mihajlo Pupin who initiated a donation scheme by which American companies could support Tesla. Tesla refused the assistance, and chose to live by a modest pension received from Kingdom of Yugoslavia and to continue researching.

Tesla's Pierce-Arrow
Of all the legends about Tesla, one of the most intriguing is that he ran a touring sedan on a little black box, extracting energy freely somehow from the wheelwork of nature, requiring no petrol. Tesla's 1931 Pierce-Arrow reportedly had a 80-horsepower alternating-current electric motor with no external power source. The driving circuit was composed of 12 vacuum tubes, some wires and assorted resistors. Tesla reportedly test drove the car for a week, with speed up to 90 mph. On March 6, 1939, Plantacres, Inc. purchased the facility's land and subsequently leased it to Peerless Photo Products, Inc. (which was subsequently bought out by AGFA Corporation, the current owner).

A Weapon to End War
Later in life, Tesla made some remarkable claims concerning a "teleforce" weapon. The press called it a "peace ray" or death ray. In total, the components and methods included:
An apparatus for producing manifestations of energy in free air instead of in a high vacuum as in the past. This, according to Tesla in 1934, was accomplished.
A mechanism for generating tremendous electrical force. This, according to Tesla, was also accomplished.
A means of intensifying and amplifying the force developed by the second mechanism.
A new method for producing a tremendous electrical repelling force. This would be the projector, or gun, of the invention.
Tesla worked on plans for a directed-energy weapon between the early 1900s till the time of his death. In 1937, Tesla composed a treatise entitled "The Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media" concerning charged particle beam. Tesla published the document in an attempt expound on the technical description of a "superweapon that would put an end to all war". This treatise of the particle beam is currently in the Nikola Tesla Museum archive in Belgrade. It described an open ended vacuum tube with a gas jet seal that allowed particles to exit, a method of charging particles to millions of volts, and a method of creating and directing nondispersive particle streams (through electrostatic repulsion). Records of his indicate that it was based on a narrow stream of atomic clusters of liquid mercury or tungsten accelerated via high voltage (by means akin to his magnifying transformer). Tesla gave the following description concerning the particle gun's operation:
[The nozzel would] "send concentrated beams of particles through the free air, of such tremendous energy that they will bring down a fleet of 10,000 enemy airplanes at a distance of 200 miles from a defending nation's border and will cause armies to drop dead in their tracks".
The weapon could be used against ground based infantry or for antiaircraft purposes. Tesla tried to interest the US War Department in the device. He also offered this invention to European countries. None of the governments purchased a contract to build the device. He was unable to act on his plans.


Extraterrestrial Radio Transmitter

See PESWiki article: Teslascope -- Extraterrestrial Radio Transmitter - Radio transmitter designed by Nikola Tesla and featured on his 75th birthday in Time Magazine, was intended to communicate with extraterrestrial life on other planets. Speak into one end, and the signal goes out the other end as a cosmic ray emitter, and vice versa.

Dynamic Theory of Gravity
When he was eighty-one, Tesla stated he had completed a Dynamic Theory of Gravity. At the time of his announcement, it was considered by the scientific establishment to exceed the bounds of reason. He stated that it was "worked out in all details" and hoped to give to the world the theory soon. [8] (http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/articles/19370710.doc) The theory was never published. Some believe that Tesla never fully developed the Unified Field Theory, nor that any physicist in the years since it was first postulated. While Tesla had "worked out a dynamic theory of gravity" that he soon hoped to give to the world, he died before he publicized any details. Few details were revealed by Tesla about his theory in the announcement. Tesla's critique in the announcement was the opening clash between him and modern experimental physics. Tesla may have viewed his principles in such a manner as to not be in conflict with other modern theories (besides Einstein's). Tesla's theory is ignored by some researchers (and mainly disregaurded by physicists).
The bulk of the theory was developed between 1892 and 1894, during the period that he was conducting experiments for with high frequency and high potential electromagnetism and patenting devices for thier ultilization. It was completed, according to Tesla, by the end of the 1930s. Tesla's theory explained gravity using electrodynamics consisting of transverse waves (to a lesser extent) and longitudinal waves (for the majority). Reminiscent of Mach's principle, Tesla stated in 1925 that,
There is no thing endowed with life - from man, who is enslaving the elements, to the nimblest creature - in all this world that does not sway in it's turn. Whenever action is born from force, though it be infinitesimal, the cosmic balance is upset and the universal motion results.
Tesla, concerning Albert Einstein's relativity theory, stated that:
"... the relativity theory, by the way, is much older than its present proponents. It was advanced over 200 years ago by my illustrious countryman Boskovic, the great philospher, who, not withstanding other and multifold obligations, wrote a thousand volumes of excellent literature on a vast variety of subjects. Boskovic dealt with relativity, including the so-called time-space continuum ...", (1936 unpublished interview, quoted in Anderson, L, ed. Nikola Tesla: Lecture Before the New York Academy of Sciences: The Streams of Lenard and Roentgen and Novel Apparatus for Their Production, 6 April 1897, reconstructed 1994).
Tesla was critical of Einstein's relativity work,
"...[a] magnificent mathematical garb which fascinates, dazzles and makes people blind to the underlying errors. The theory is like a beggar clothed in purple whom ignorant people take for a king ...., its exponents are brilliant men but they are metaphysicists rather than scientists ..., (New York Times, 11 July 1935, p23, c.8).
Tesla also stated that
I hold that space cannot be curved, for the simple reason that it can have no properties. It might as well be said that God has properties. He has not, but only attributes and these are of our own making. Of properties we can only speak when dealing with matter filling the space. To say that in the presence of large bodies space becomes curved is equivalent to stating that something can act upon nothing. I, for one, refuse to subscribe to such a view. (New York Hearald Tribune, 11 September 1932)

See the PowerPedia article : Dynamic theory of gravity


Death and afterwards
The world, I think, will wait a long time for Nikola Tesla's equal in achievement and imagination.
— Edwin H. Armstrong

Tesla commemorative plaque on Hotel New Yorker erected July 10, 2001 by the Tesla Memorial
Society of New York and Hotel New Yorker. (Image from http://teslasociety.com)
Tesla died alone in the hotel New Yorker of heart failure, some time between the evening of January 5 and the morning of January 8, 1942. Despite selling his AC electricity patents, he was essentially destitute and died with significant debts. At the time of his death, Tesla had been working on some form of teleforce weapon, or death ray, the secrets of which he had offered to the United States War Department on the morning of 5 January. It appears that his proposed death ray was related to his research into ball lightning and plasma. He was found dead three days later and, after the FBI was contacted by the War Department, his papers were declared to be top secret.
Immediately after Tesla's death became known, the FBI instructed the Office of Alien Property to take possession of his papers and property, despite his US citizenship. All of his personal effects were seized on the advice of presidential advisors. J. Edgar Hoover declared the case "most secret", because of the nature of Tesla's inventions and patents. Tesla's Serbian-Orthodox family and the Yugoslav embassy struggled with American authorities to gain these items after his death due to the potential significance of some of his research. Eventually, his nephew, Sava Kosanovich, got possession of some of his personal effects (which are now housed in the wikipedia:Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia). Tesla's funeral took place on January 12, 1943 at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in Manhattan, New York City. Many went to New York City's Cathedral of St. John the Divine for his funeral services and a messages worldwide acknowledged the death of a genius. Addressing the crowd was three Nobel Prize recipients whos stated that Tesla was "one of the outstanding intellects of the world who paved the way for many of the technological developments of modern times."
On February 14, 1967, the nonprofit public benefit corporation Brookhaven Town Historical Trust was established. It selected the Wardenclyffe facility to be designated as a historic site and as the first site to be preserved by the Trust on March 3, 1967. In the month of July in 1976, a plaque from Tesla's birth country, Yugoslavia, was installed by the Brookhaven Town Historic trust near the entrance of the facility. The inscription of the plaque reads:
IN THIS BUILDING DESIGNED BY STANFORD WHITE, ARCHITECT
NIKOLA TESLA
BORN SMILJAN, YUGOSLAVIA 1856, DIED NEW YORK, U.S.A. 1943
CONSTRUCTED IN 1901-1905 WARDENCLYFFE, HUGE RADIO STATION WITH
ANTENNA TOWER 187 FT. HIGH (DESTROYED 1917), WHICH WAS TO SERVE
AS HIS FIRST WORLD COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.
IN MEMORY OF 120TH ANNIVERSARY OF TESLA'S BIRTH AND 200TH
ANNIVERSARY OF U.S.A. INDEPENDENCE - July 10, 1976


Tesla Monument at Goat Island, Niagara Falls, New York. In 1976, Yugoslavia gifted this to the United States. The first hydro-electric power plant in Niagara Falls was of Tesla's design. This marked Tesla's Alternating Current victory over Edison's Direct Current. The Croatian sculptor Krsinic fashioned this monument.
In 1976, a bronze statue of Tesla was placed at Niagara Falls. A similar statue was also erected in the Tesla's hometown of Gospic in the 1981. The statue in Gospic was dynamited by the Croatian forces in 1991.
Perhaps because of Tesla's personal eccentricity and the dramatic nature of his demonstrations, conspiracy theories about applications of his work persist. The common Hollywood stereotype of the "mad scientist" mirrors Tesla's real-life persona, or at least a caricature of it—which may be no accident considering that many of the earliest such movies (including the first movie version of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein) were produced by Tesla's old rival, Thomas Edison. There are at least two films describing Tesla's life. In the first, arranged for TV, Tesla was portrayed by Rade Šerbedžija. In wikipedia:1980, Orson Welles produced a Yugoslavian film named Tajna Nikole Tesle (The Secret of Nikola Tesla), in which Welles himself played the part of Tesla's patron, George Westinghouse.
According to FBI documents [9] (http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/tesla.htm) acquired via FOIA request, the sum of Tesla's possessions ("consisting of about two truckloads of material... [and] approximately thirty barrels and bundles") were seized, upon his death in 1943, by agents of the (now defunct) Office of Alien Property Custodian. One document states that "[he] is reported to have some 80 trunks in different places containing transcripts and plans having to do with his experiments...".

Personal views
Tesla believed that war could not be avoided until the cause for its recurrence was removed, but was opposed to wars in general. He possessed a hatred of war, from his parents and homeland, and sought to end warfare scientifically by devising protective measures that would prevent wars. He found exceptions and some justifiable situations where conflict was necessary. He envisioned wars of machines, not of humans, and of more terrible weapons in the future. A system for "Projecting Concentrated Non-Dispersive Energy Through Natural Media" known as teleforce was reportedly developed later in his life. Teleforce was supposed to have been a type of defensive particle-beam weapon.
He sought to reduce distance, such as in communication for better understanding, transportation, and transmission of energy, as a means to ensure friendly international relations. Tesla predicted,
"One day man will connect his apparatus to the very wheelwork of the universe... and the very forces that motivate the planets in their orbits and cause them to rotate will rotate his own machinery."
Like many of his era, Tesla, a life-long bachelor, became a proponent of a self-imposed selective breeding version of eugenics. In a 1937 interview, he stated,
[...] man's new sense of pity began to interfere with the ruthless workings of nature. The only method compatible with our notions of civilization and the race is to prevent the breeding of the unfit by sterilization and the deliberate guidance of the mating instinct [...]. The trend of opinion among eugenists is that we must make marriage more difficult. Certainly no one who is not a desirable parent should be permitted to produce progeny. A century from now it will no more occur to a normal person to mate with a person eugenically unfit than to marry a habitual criminal.
In 1926, Tesla in an interview, commenting on the ills of the social subservience of women and the struggle of women toward gender equality, indicated that humanity's future would be run by "Queen Bees". He believed that women would become the dominant sex in the future.

Quotes
"My enemies have been so successful in portraying me as a poet and a visionary, that I must put out something commercial without delay." — Nikola Tesla
"War cannot be avoided until the physical cause for its recurrence is removed and this, in the last analysis, is the vast extent of the planet on which we live. Only through annihilation of distance in every respect, as the conveyance of intelligence, transport of passengers and supplies and transmission of energy will conditions be brought about some day, insuring permanency of friendly relations. What we now want is closer contact and better understanding between individuals and communities all over the earth, and the elimination of egoism and pride which is always prone to plunge the world into primeval barbarism and strife... Peace can only come as a natural consequence of universal enlightenment [...]" — Nikola Tesla, Electrical experimenter magazine, 1919.
"We are confronted with portentous problems which can not be solved just by providing for our material existence, however abundantly. On the contrary, progress in this direction is fraught with hazards and perils not less menacing than those born from want and suffering. If we were to release the energy of the atoms or discover some other way of developing cheap and unlimited power at any point of the globe this accomplishment, instead of being a blessing, might bring disaster to mankind[...] The greatest good will come from the technical improvements tending to unification and harmony, and my wireless transmitter is preeminently such. By its means the human voice and likeness will be reproduced everywhere and factories driven thousands of miles from waterfalls furnishing the power; aerial machines will be propelled around the earth without a stop and the sun's energy controlled to create lakes and rivers for motive purposes and transformation of arid deserts into fertile land [...]" — Nikola Tesla, Electrical experimenter magazine, 1919.
"As soon as [the Wardenclyffe facility is] completed, it will be possible for a business man in New York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in London or elsewhere. He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing equipment. An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant. In the same manner any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another place ..." — Nikola Tesla, "The Future of the Wireless Art", Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 1908, pg. 67-71.
"It is not a dream, it is a simple feat of scientific electrical engineering, only expensive — blind, faint-hearted, doubting world! [...] Humanity is not yet sufficiently advanced to be willingly led by the discoverer's keen searching sense. But who knows? Perhaps it is better in this present world of ours that a revolutionary idea or invention instead of being helped and patted, be hampered and ill-treated in its adolescence — by want of means, by selfish interest, pedantry, stupidity and ignorance; that it be attacked and stifled; that it pass through bitter trials and tribulations, through the strife of commercial existence. So do we get our light. So all that was great in the past was ridiculed, condemned, combatted, suppressed — only to emerge all the more powerfully, all the more triumphantly from the struggle." — Nikola Tesla (at the end of his dream for Wardenclyffe) [Wardenclyffe — A Forfeited Dream]

Relations and friendships
In his middle life, Nikola Tesla became very close friends with Mark Twain. They spent a lot of time together in his lab and elsewhere. The following was stated by Tesla,
"I had hardly completed my course at the Real Gymnasium when I was prostrated with a dangerous illness or rather, a score of them, and my condition became so desperate that I was given up by physicians. During this period I was permitted to read constantly, obtaining books from the Public Library which had been neglected and entrusted to me for classification of the works and preparation of the catalogues. One day I was handed a few volumes of new literature unlike anything I had ever read before and so captivating as to make me utterly forget my hopeless state. They were the earlier works of Mark Twain and to them might have been due the miraculous recovery which followed. Twenty-five years later, when I met Mr. Clemens and we formed a friendship between us, I told him of the experience and was amazed to see that great man of laughter burst into tears." — Nikola Tesla, Electrical experimenter magazine, 1919.
Tesla was also friends with Robert Underwood Johnson. He had amicable relations with, among others, Francis Marion Crawford, Stanford White, Fritz Lowenstein, George Scherff, and Kenneth Swezey.
Tesla remained bitter in the aftermath of his incident with Edison. The day after Edison died the New York Times contained extensive coverage of Edison's life, with the only negative opinion coming from Tesla who was quoted as saying,
"He had no hobby, cared for no sort of amusement of any kind and lived in utter disregard of the most elementary rules of hygiene"
and that,
"His method was inefficient in the extreme, for an immense ground had to be covered to get anything at all unless blind chance intervened and, at first, I was almost a sorry witness of his doings, knowing that just a little theory and calculation would have saved him 90 per cent of the labor. But he had a veritable contempt for book learning and mathematical knowledge, trusting himself entirely to his inventor's instinct and practical American sense."

Recognition and honors


Bust of Tesla by Croatian Ivan Meštrović, 1939, in Zagreb, Croatia. The Museum of Nikola Tesla in Belgrade possesses letters of correspondence between Tesla and Mestrovic, denoting thier their friendship and mutual admiration.
SI unit
The tesla (symbol T) is the SI derived unit of magnetic flux density (or magnetic induction). It is a unit to define the intensity (density) of a magnetic field. This SI unit is named after Nikola tesla. As for all SI units whose names are derived from the proper name of a person, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (T). But when an SI unit is spelled out, it should always be written in lowercase (tesla), unless it begins a sentence or is the name "degree Celsius".
— Based on The International System of Units (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter5/5-2.html), section 5.2.
The tesla was adopted in 1960, and named in honor of Tesla the genius. The tesla is the value of the total magnetic flux (a magnet's "power") divided by area. Hence, reducing the affected area will generally increase the magnetic flux density. This will continue to occur until the material becomes magnetically saturated and/or the magnetic field "leakage" increases so fast that no additional tesla gains are possible. 1 tesla is equivalent to: 10,000 gauss (G), used in CGS system; 109 gammas (γ), used in geophysics.
Scientific societies
As the result of his achievements in the development of electricity and radio, Nikola Tesla received many awards and accolades. He was selected as a fellow of the IEEE (at the time the AIEE) and was awarded its most prestigious prize, the Edison Medal. He was also made a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and accepted invitations to become a member of the American Philosophical Society, and the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Because of his research in electrotherapy and his invention of high frequency oscillators, he was also made a fellow of the American Electro-Therapeutic Association.
SI Unit
The scientific compound derived SI unit measuring magnetic flux density or magnetic induction (commonly known as the magnetic field ), the tesla, was named in his honor (at the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, Paris, 1960).
IEEE Nikola Tesla Award
In 1975 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created a Nikola Tesla Award via an agreement between the IEEE Power Engineering Society and the IEEE Board of Directors. It is given to individuals or a team that has made outstanding contributions to the generation or utilization of electric power. The Tesla award is considered the most prestigious award in the area of electric power.
Airport
On July 10, 2006 in honor of his 150th birthday the biggest airport in Serbia (Belgrade) was renamed Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport.
Yugoslavian/Serbian currency
100 Serbian dinar banknote obverse. Nikola Tesla was featured on the currency of the former Yugoslavia. The 100 Serbian dinars banknote features a drawing of the electric motor and of Nikola Tesla. The current 100 Serbian dinar banknotes issued by the National Bank of Serbia have a picture of a handsome young Tesla on the obverse (front side). On the reverse side there is portion of drawing of an induction motor from his patent application and a photograph of Tesla holding a gas filled tube emitting light as a result of electric induction.
Cosmological objects
The Tesla crater on the far side of the moon and the minor planet 2244 Tesla are named after Tesla.
Belgrade airport Nikola Tesla
The Nikola Tesla Airport is situated 12 kilometers west of central Belgrade, in Belgrade's Municipality of Sur�?in, surrounded by Vojvodina's fertile lowlands. On July 10, 2006 to mark 150 years since the birth of Serbian-American scientist Nikola Tesla a monument has been erected near Terminal 1 of Belgrade Airport (now known as Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport). The monument is 3,10 metres high and 1,000 kilograms heavy.
Electric power stations
Two of the coal fired power stations run by Electric Power Industry of Serbia, TPP Nikola Tesla A and TPP Nikola Tesla B, are named in honor of Tesla.
Commerce
The Croatian subsidiary of Ericsson is named Ericsson Nikola Tesla d.d. (Nikola Tesla was a phone hardware company in Zagreb before Ericsson bought it in 1990s) in honour of Nikola Tesla's pioneering work in wireless communication.
Sports car
Tesla Motors states, "The namesake of our Tesla Roadster is the genius Nikola Tesla [...] We‘re confident that if he were alive today, Nikola Tesla would look over our car and nod his head with both understanding and approval."
Science fiction and computer games
Tesla technology is recurring in alternate history works like steampunk, or stories concerning secret pre WWII technology:
Tesla appears as a character in the 1995 novel The Prestige by Christopher Priest.
Tesla also makes a brief appearance as a character in the 1989 novel Moon Palace by Paul Auster.
Tesla is a continuing character in a series of novels by Spider Robinson concerned with Callahan's Crosstime Saloon.
In the ZBS series of audio plays The Adventures of Ruby, Tesla is considered to be the deity of technicians and engineers and can be summoned with a special chant near a reproduction of a Tesla Coil.
The superperson Nikola Tesla is a Japanese comic (manga).
Tesla is a character in the DC Comics Elseworlds story, JLA: Age of Wonder
In the White Wolf roleplaying game Mage: the Ascension, Nikola Tesla is mentioned as being one of the most respected members of the Sons of Ether Tradition.
The Tesla Gun in the computer game Return to Castle Wolfenstein is a weapon that projects lightning-like electrical arcs.
The Tesla Armor of the Fallout series of computer games provides excellent protection against laser and plasma/electrical attack types.
Two weapons in the Ratchet & Clank video game series, the Tesla Claw and Tesla Barrier (the upgraded version of the Shield Charger), use electricity to attack enemies
In the computer game Arcanum, two of the technological schematics available to Electrical Technologists are the Tesla Rod (a staff which fires bolts of electricity) and the Tesla Gun (a Tesla Rod combined with a Looking-Glass Rifle; effectively an energy rifle).
In the Command & Conquer Red Alert series of video games, "Tesla" is the name of the technology the Soviets use to generate power and for their lightning-based weapons. Perhaps the most widely known example is the Tesla Coil defense structure, capable of sending short eletrical bolts towards oncoming units.
In the massively multiplayer online game City of Heroes, there is an electricity-themed superpower named "Tesla Cage", and one class of enemy non-player character possessing that power are called "Tesla Knights".
Many other computer games feature devices with "Tesla" in the name.
A reference to Tesla's "Legendary Death Ray" is made in the film The Librarian: Quest for *The Spear (2004), in which the actual prototype is housed in the massive library of artifacts and books, which also includes such artifacts (fabled, or otherwise) as The Ark of the Covenant and Excalibur.
In Tomb Raider: Legend, Lara Croft has to investigate Tesla's (fictional) facility in Kazakhstan in order to uncover an ancient artifact which is powering the Tesla plant's main weapons array.
The Tesla inspired character Jonas Bartok, played by John de Lancie in the 1995 TV series Legend.
In Martian Dreams, Tesla has a minor role as the head of a rescue team sent to Mars.
In The Five Fists of Science Tesla teams up with Mark Twain to battle Thomas Edison.
In Clive Barker's novel The Great and Secret Show, one of the key-role characters is named Tesla.
In Dan Simmons' novel Hyperion, Tesla Trees (tall trees with a dome-shaped crown reminiscent of the tesla coil) form a flame forest which seasonally erupts into electric storm as the trees become active.
Arts
The rock band Tesla is named after him. They referenced his life and works a number of times, such as in the song "Edison's Medicine" (and accompanying music video) and the album The Great Radio Controversy.
The British pop group Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark released a single from their 1984 album Junk Culture called "Tesla Girls". The song included the lyrics: 'Tesla girls tesla girls/Testing out theories/Electric chairs and dynamos/Dressed to kill they’re killing me'.
The one-man synth pop force Joy Electric recorded a song titled Nikola Tesla on the 2004 album "Hello Mannequin." The song uses Tesla as an example to how some important figures in history are often overlooked and forgotten about.
Jack White of the rock band 'the White Stripes' has a keen interest in the life and works of Nikola Tesla. This is reflected in some aspects of his work, for example in the song 'Astro' (found on the band's eponymous debut) White sings "Maybe Tesla does the astro/Maybe Edison is AC/DC". The home page of the bands website is also adorned with a representation of Tesla's Wardenclyffe Tower. Furthermore, there are suggested parallels between White and Tesla as both have adopted a rather eccentric and somewhat avant-garde approach to their respective fields which is not (or was not) easily accepted by some. Additionally, Jack and ex-wife Meg White made an appearance with a Tesla Coil in a vignette in the independent film Coffee and Cigarettes
Australian Composer Constantine Koukias wrote his two-act opera TESLA - Lightning in his Hand about the life and times of Nikola Tesla. It premiered at the 10 Days on the Island Festival in Hobart, Tasmania in 2003. Tesla was a professor of electrical engineers and is a member of the I.S.A. (International Scientists Association).
The Handsome Family's 2006 album Last Days Of Wonder features a song called 'Tesla's Hotel Room'. The album takes its title from the lyrics of the song.
The America's Best Comics hero Tom Strong has a daughter named Tesla, who has had adventures with her father and on her own.
"Tesla Electric" is a play about Tesla's relationship with Edison and Twain written by Canadian David G. Fraser

Further readings and films

Patents
For a list of Tesla's patents, see Tesla's patent list
External patents
Pepe, "Pepe's Tesla Pages (http://www.tesla.hu/)", 2004-12-25.
Nikola's Page (http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/tesla.htm) (Hungarian - original images of text)
Fred Walters' hand-scanned Tesla patents (http://www.keelynet.com/tesla/) (PDFs)
Jim Bieberich's The Complete Nikola Tesla U.S. Patent Collection (http://web.mit.edu/most/Public/Tesla1/alpha_tesla.html)

Articles (pre-1900)
Selected Tesla Writings, Written by Tesla and others, 1888-1942.
Light Without Heat, The Manufacturer and Builder, January 1892, Vol. 24
Biography - Nikola Tesla, The Century Magazine, November 1893, Vol. 47
Tesla's Oscillator and Other Inventions, The Century Magazine, November 1894, Vol. 49
The New Telegraphy. Recent Experiments in Telegraphy wih Sparks, The Century Magazine, November 1897, Vol. 55
Nikola Tesla Museum, "Nikola Tesla 1856-1943: Lectures, Patents", 1956.
Nikola Tesla, "Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency", 1904.

Books
Anderson, Leland I., "Dr. Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)", 2d enl. ed., Minneapolis, Tesla Society. 1956. LCCN 56047430 /L
Cheney, Margaret, "Tesla: Man Out of Time", 1979. ISBN 0-13-906859-7
Childress, David H., "The Fantastic inventions of Nikola Tesla," 1993. ISBN 0-932813-19-4
Glenn, Jim, "The Complete Patents of Nikola Tesla," 1994. ISBN 1-566192-66-8
Inez Hunt and Wanetta W. Draper, "Lightning in His Hand: The Life Story of Nikola Tesla". 1964.
Jonnes, Jill "Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World". New York: Random House, 2003. ISBN 0-375-50739-6
Martin, Thomas C., "The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla," 1894 . ISBN 0-880298-12-X
O'Neill, John H.,"Prodigal Genius," 1944. ISBN 0-914732-33-1
Seifer, Marc J., "Wizard, the Life and Times of Nikola Tesla," 1998. ISBN 1-559723-29-7 (HC), ISBN 0-806519-60-6 (SC)
Tesla, Nikola, "Colorado Springs Notes, 1899–1900", ISBN 0-899187-82-X
Tesla, Nikola, "My Inventions" Parts I through V published in the Electrical Experimenter monthly magazine from February through June, 1919. Part VI published October, 1919. Reprint edition with introductory notes by Ben Johnson, New York: Barnes and Noble,1982, ISBN 0-76070-085-0; also online at "My Inventions'", 1919. ISBN 1-599869-94-2
Valone, Thomas, "Harnessing the Wheelwork of Nature", 2002. ISBN 1-931882-04-5
Lindemann, Peter, "The Free Energy Secrets of Cold Electricity (http://www.scribd.com/doc/6771/Lindemann-Peter-Free-Energy-Secrets)", 2001. ISBN N/A

Movies and Films
Documentary film
"Tesla: Master of Lightning". 1999. ISBN 0760710058 (Book) ISBN 0793635497 (PBS Video)
"Nikola Tesla - The Genius that lit the world". 1994. Directed by Ljubo Vujovic ASIN 6304952899 (DVD/VHS) - Produced jointly by the Tesla Memorial Society and the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade. - 40min
"Phenomena: Lost Archives: The Missing Secrets of Nikola Tesla"
Biopic
"The Secret of Nikola Tesla". 1h45min - Orson Welles, Petar Bozovic, Dennis Patrick, directed by Kristo Papic
Other
David Bowie as Tesla in the movie The PrestigeThere are at least two films describing Tesla's life. In the first, filmed in 1977, arranged for TV, Tesla was portrayed by Rade Šerbedžija. In 1980, Orson Welles produced a Yugoslavian film named Tajna Nikole Tesle (The Secret of Nikola Tesla), in which Welles himself played the part of Tesla's patron, J.P. Morgan. A 2006 Christopher Nolan film called The Prestige, based on the Christopher Priest novel of the same title mentioned above, will feature rock star and actor David Bowie playing the part of Nikola Tesla. Nikola Tesla is also referred to in the sketch "Jack Shows Meg His Tesla Coil" from Jim Jarmusch's film Coffee and Cigarettes Featuring Jack White and Meg White of The White Stripes. American film director Michael Almereyda was signed to a literary agency on the strength of a spec script on the life of Nikola Tesla. A reference to Tesla's "Legendary Death Ray" is made in the film The Librarian: Quest for The Spear (2004), in which the actual prototype is housed in the massive library of artifacts and books, which also includes such artifacts (fabled, or otherwise) as The Ark of the Covenant and Excalibur.

Magazines
Carlson, W. Bernard, "Inventor of dreams". Scientific American, March 2005 v292 i3 p78(7).
Jatras, Stella L., "The genius of Nikola Tesla". The New American, July 28, 2003 v19 i15 p9(1)
Rybak, James P., "Nikola Tesla: Scientific Savant". Popular Electronics, 1042170X, Nov99, Vol. 16, Issue 11.
Lawren, B., "Rediscovering Tesla". Omni, Mar88, Vol. 10 Issue 6.

Sources, resources, and references
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Web
Sites on Nikola Tesla (http://www.google.com/search?svnum=50&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&sa=N&tab=wi&q=Nikola+Tesla)
via Google Search
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groups
Newsgroups with Nikola Tesla (http://groups.google.com/groups?svnum=50&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&sa=N&tab=wi&q=Nikola+Tesla)
via Google Groups
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Image
Images of Nikola Tesla (http://www.google.com/images?svnum=50&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&sa=N&tab=wi&q=Nikola+Tesla)
via Google Image
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Image
Images of Nikola Tesla (http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?p=Nikola+Tesla&fr=FP-tab-web-t&toggle=1)
via Yahoo! Images
You can find other information on Nikola Tesla by searching through the Wikimedia projects:
Encyclopedia entry from Wikpedia
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations (http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nikola_Tesla) from Wikiquote
Source texts (http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nikola_Tesla) from Wikisource
Images and media (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nikola_Tesla) from Commons
News stories (http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nikola_Tesla) from Wikinews
General information Biographies
Cheney, Margaret & Uth, Robert, "Tesla, Master of Lightning", published by Barnes & Noble, 1999 ISBN 0-7607-1005-8
Germano, Frank, "Dr. Nikola Tesla (http://www.frank.germano.com/nikolatesla.htm)". Frank. Germano.com.
Lomas, Robert, "The Man who Invented the Twentieth Century (http://www.robertlomas.com/Tesla/presentation/index.htm)". Lecture to South Western Branch of Instititute of Physics.
Martin, Thomas Commerford, "The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla", New York: The Electrical Engineer, 1894 (3rd Ed); reprinted by Barnes & Noble, 1995 ISBN 0-88029-812-X
O'Neill, John J., "Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola (http://www.rastko.org.yu/istorija/tesla/oniell-tesla.html)", 1944. ISBN 0913022403 (Tesla reportedly said of this biographer "You understand me better than any man alive"; also the version at uncletaz.com (http://www.uncletaz.com/library/scimath/tesla/) with other items at uncletaz's site])
Penner, John R.H. The Strange Life of Nikola Tesla (http://www.tfcbooks.com/special/mi_link.htm), corrupted version of My Inventions.
Pratt, H., "Nikola Tesla 1856–1943", Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 44, September, 1956.
"Nikola Tesla (http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?taid=&id=1234597&lid=1)". IEEE History Center, 2005.
Seifer, Marc J. "Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla; Biography of a Genius", Secaucus, NJ:Carol Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN 1-55972-329-7
Weisstein, Eric W., "Tesla, Nikola (1856–1943) (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Tesla.html)". Eric Weisstein's World of Science.
Wikipedia contributors (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Recentchanges), Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation. .
Other Research
"Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature", Moon Nomenclature: Crater (http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/moon/mooncrat.html). USGS, Astrogeology Research Program.
Dimitrijevic, Milan S., "Belgrade Astronomical Observatory Historical Review". Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade, 60 (1998), 162–170. Also, "Srpski asteroidi, Tesla (http://www.astronomija.co.yu/suncsist/asteroidi/srbi.htm#Tesla)". Astronomski magazine.
Hoover, John Edgar, et al., FOIA FBI files (http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/tesla.htm), 1943.
Pratt, H., "Nikola Tesla 1856–1943", Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 44, September, 1956.
W.C. Wysock, J.F. Corum, J.M. Hardesty and K.L. Corum, "Who Was The Real Dr. Nikola Tesla (http://www.ttr.com/Who%20Was%20Dr%20Tesla.pdf)? (A Look At His Professional Credentials)". Antenna Measurement Techniques Association, posterpaper, October 22–25, 2001 (PDF)
Roguin, Ariel, "Historical Note: Nikola Tesla: The man behind the magnetic field unit". J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2004;19:369–374. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Sellon, J. L., "The impact of Nikola Tesla on the cement industry". Behrent Eng. Co., Wheat Ridge, CO. Cement Industry Technical Conference. 1997. XXXIX Conference Record., 1997 IEEE/PC. Page(s) 125–133. ISBN 0-7803-3962-2
Valentinuzzi, M.E., "Nikola Tesla: why was he so much resisted and forgotten?" Inst. de Bioingenieria, Univ. Nacional de Tucuman; Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, IEEE. Jul/Aug 1998, 17:4, p 74–75. ISSN 0739-5175
Cosmic Rays
Waser, André, "Nikola Tesla’s Radiations and the Cosmic Rays (http://www.aw-verlag.ch/Documents/TeslasRadiationsAndCosmicRays01.PDF)". (PDF)
Views on War
Secor, H. Winfield, "Tesla's views on Electricity and the War", Electrical Experimenter, Volume 5, Number 4, August, 1917.
Florey, Glen, "Tesla and the Military". Engineering 24, December 5, 2000.
Stationary and scalar waves
Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, "Nikola Tesla, Lightning Observations, and Stationary Waves". 1994.
Corum, K. L., J. F. Corum, and A. H. Aidinejad, "Atmospheric Fields, Tesla's Receivers and Regenerative Detectors". 1994.
Meyl, Konstantin, H. Weidner, E. Zentgraf, T. Senkel, T. Junker, and P. Winkels, "Experiments to proof the evidence of scalar waves Tests with a Tesla reproduction". Institut für Gravitationsforschung (IGF), Am Heerbach 5, D-63857 Waldaschaff.
Radio waves
Anderson, L. I., "John Stone Stone on Nikola Tesla’s Priority in Radio and Continuous Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". The Antique Wireless Association Review, Vol. 1, 1986, pp. 18–41.
Anderson, L. I., "Priority in Invention of Radio, Tesla v. Marconi". Antique Wireless Association monograph, March 1980.
Marincic, A., and D. Budimir, "Tesla's contribution to radiowave propagation". Dept. of Electron. Eng., Belgrade Univ. (5th International Conference on Telecommunications in Modern Satellite, Cable and Broadcasting Service, 2001. TELSIKS 2001. pg., 327–331 vol.1) ISBN 0-7803-7228-X
Page, R.M., "The Early History of Radar", Proceedings of the IRE, Volume 50, Number 5, May, 1962, (special 50th Anniversary Issue).
Induction motor
C Mackechnie Jarvis "Nikola Tesla and the induction motor". 1970 Phys. Educ. 5 280–287.
Other
"Giant Eye to See Round the World (http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/articles/19230225.doc)" (DOC)
Nichelson, Oliver, "Nikola Tesla's Latter Energy Generation Designs (http://tesla.nichelson.googlepages.com/home)", A description of Tesla's energy generator that "would not consume fuel." 26th IECEC Proceedings, 1991, Boston, MA (American Nuclear Society) Vol. 4, pp 433-438.
Nichelson, Oliver, "The Thermodynamics of Tesla's Fuelless Electrical generator (http://tesla.nichelson.googlepages.com/home)". A theory of the physics of Tesla's new energy generator. (American Chemical Society, 1993. 2722-5/93/0028-63)
Toby Grotz, "The Influence of Vedic Philosophy on Nikola Tesla's Understanding of Free Energy (http://arizonaenergy.org/CommunityEnergy/INFLUENCE%20OF%20VEDIC%20ON%20TESLA'S%20UNDERSTANDING%20OF%20FREE%20ENERGY.htm)".
History and family
The Nikola Tesla museum (http://www.tesla-museum.org/)
The Tesla Memorial Society (http://www.teslasociety.com/) - The Genius Who Lit the World "[10] (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2256433507046558974&q=Nikola+Tesla)".
World of Scientific Biography: Nikola Tesla (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Tesla.html), by Wolfsram Research
Nikola Tesla Page, tesla coils (http://amasci.com/tesla/tesla.html), Plasma Sphere wo-glass, Plasma Sphere HV supplies, Coil plans, instructions, High voltage projects.
Tesla's great-grand niece Daniela Tesla lives in Serbia (http://arhiva.glas-javnosti.co.yu/arhiva/2006/07/10/srpski/D06070902.shtml) - Glas Javnosti interview with 16-year old Tesla's descendant, Serbian refugee from Croatia (in Serbian)
Tesla's relative Boško Budisavljević lives in Zagreb Croatia - about Tesla's Croatian homeland and Serbian parents (newspaper Jutarnji list) (http://www.jutarnji.hr/nedjeljni_jutarnji/clanak/art-2006,5,20,budisavljevic_tesla,27153.jl)- text is on Croatian language.
Wagner, John W., "Nikola Tesla, Forgotten American Scientist (http://www.ntesla.org/)".
Vujovic, Ljubo, "Tesla Memorial Society of New York (http://www.teslasociety.com/)", New York, USA.
"The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project (http://www.teslascience.org/)". Shoreham, New York. (Aims to reuse Wardenclyffe Tower.)
Bass, Robert W., "Self-Sustained Non-Hertzian Longitudal Wave Oscillations as a Rigorous Solution of Maxwell's Equations for Electromagnetic Radiation". Inventek Enterprises, Inc., Las Vegas, Nevada.
Tesla, Nikola, "On the Transmission of Electricity Without Wires". Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904.
"Boundless Space: A Bus Bar". The Electrical World, Vol 32, No. 19.
Massie, Walter Wentworth, "Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained ". New York, Van Nostrand. 1908.
Anderson, Leland, "Rare Notes from Tesla on Wardenclyffe", in Electric Spacecraft - A journal of Interactive Research, Issue 26, Sept 14, 1998. Contains copies of rare documents from the Tesla Museum in Belgrade including Tesla's notes and sketches from 1901
"Nikola Tesla's Father - Milutin Tesla (1819–1879) (http://www.serbnatlfed.org/Archives/Tesla/tesla-father.htm)". Serb National Federation.
Kosanovic, Bogdan R., "Serbian-American inventor, electrical engineer, and scientist (http://www.neuronet.pitt.edu/~bogdan/tesla/index.htm)". December 29, 2000.
Mrkich, D., "Tesla - The European Years (http://www.serbnatlfed.org/Archives/Tesla/TeslaBook.htm)", Serb National Federation.
Views of the wadenclyffe facility
Facility details :Interior view (a) (http://www.teslascience.org/archive/descriptions/WP005.htm) -- Interior view (b) (http://www.teslascience.org/archive/descriptions/WP004.htm) -- Interior view (c) (http://www.teslascience.org/archive/descriptions/WP014.htm) -- Facility front view (http://www.tfcbooks.com/images/articles/twp6a3.gif) --Facility side view (http://www.tfcbooks.com/images/articles/tower_sb.gif) -- Facility large front view (http://www.teslasociety.com/tower.jpg) -- Tower alone (http://www.teslasociety.com/tower2.jpg)
Radio shows
Science Friday, "Strange Scientists (http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1998/Aug/hour2_080798.html)", August 7, 1998
Science Friday, "The Science of Radio (http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1995/Oct/hour2_101395.html)", October 13, 1995
Ockhams Razor, "Nikola Tesla -- The Unknown Inventor (http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ockham/stories/s690290.htm)"
Other
Online Archive of Many of Tesla's Writings, Articles and Published Papers (1.1 megs of text) (http://www.TeslaResearch.com)
Nikola Tesla Research Paper (http://home.earthlink.net/~dustin.wallace/id8.html)
Biography of Nikola Tesla (http://www.opendepth.com/ExperimentsAC_Nikola_Tesla_Biography), from Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency (http://www.opendepth.com/ExperimentswithAC).
Nikola Tesla Story (http://www.flyingmoose.org/truthfic/tesla.htm): Tells more about Tesla and Edison.
Seifer, Marc J., and Michael Behar, Electric Mind (http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/6.10/tesla.html), Wired Magazine, October 1998.
Palmer, Stephen E., "Wardenclyffe: Nikola Tesla's Dream For Free Energy And The Conspiracy Which Destroyed It (http://supernaturalminds.com/Wardenclyffe.html)".
Guntenberg's "Nikola Tesla's works" (http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/t#a5067)
Requiem for Tesla (http://www.rudemechs.com/shows/history/requiem_03.htm): a play created by Rude Mechanicals in Austin, Texas 2001, 2003
Various writings and lectures (http://www.opendepth.com/node/46) by Nikola Tesla
Kenneth M. Swezey Papers (http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8047.htm), 1891–1982, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, archival resources.
Nikola Tesla Special Event Amateur Radio Station 9A150NT (http://www.inet.hr/9a6aa/9a150nt) (celebrating Tesla's 150th birthday)
Nikola Tesla biography (http://www.elitesecurity.org/t18434-Biografija-Nikola-Tesla-Na-sezdesetu-godisnjicu-smrti-Nikole-Tesle) (Best collection of texts about Tesla on Serbian language)
Facilities assembled (http://www.tfcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&a_051.htm); Colorado Springs, Long Island, and Lac Edouard (near Sanford, Quebec).
PBS Tower of Dreams (http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_todre.html)
The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project (http://www.teslascience.org/)
Tesla's vision of the wireless global communications (http://www.ensc.sfu.ca/people/grad/milan/cnl/presentations/ljilja/tesla/)
Creation of a Monument to Nikola Tesla (http://www.tfcbooks.com/articles/monument.htm)
The Real Science of "Non-Hertzian" Waves (http://205.243.100.155/frames/Non-Herzian_Waves.html) (ed. Reportedly focuses on Tesla's wireless energy transmission ideas; the main focus is on transverse wave, i.e. "Hertz waves". Plasma wave physics, longitudinal waves, and telluric currents not considered).
Cooper, John. F., "Magnifying Transmitter circuit diagram (http://www.tesla-coil.com/images/Magnifier%201.jpg); alternate circuit diagram (http://www.tesla-coil.com/images/Magnifier%202.jpg)". Tesla-Coil.com (http://www.Tesla-Coil.com).
Entry at Structurae (http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0015668)
Entry at SkyscraperPage.com (http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b41929)
Nikola Tesla and my thoughts (http://free-ri.htnet.hr/Branko/index.html); Tesla combustion engine, Energy of space, Flying machine ...

Modern news articles
News Coverage of Nikola Tesla's 150th Birthday (http://pesn.com/2006/07/12/9500291_Nikola_Tesla_150th_B-day/) - Stories from around the world by various news agencies, celebrating one of the most brilliant scientists who ever lived. Celebrated as the father of the 20th century, with his AC power and radio, he is also the father of free energy -- a probably foundation of the 21st century. (PESN; July 12, 2006)
Electricity 'war' victor given his due in L.A. (http://www.dailynews.com/news/ci_4115644) - Article in Daily News features Edson Andre Johnson, who has been championing Nikola Tesla, seeking for a global adoption of July 10, Tesla's B-day, as International Energy Independence Day. (Daily News; July 31, 2006)
After years of neglect, Nikola Tesla is "in" in Croatia (http://www.serbianna.com/news/2006/02018.shtml) - Serbianna.com is featuring a story about how Tesla is suddenly "in" again, thanks to Croatia's bid to join the European Union which has prodded it to make gestures of reconciliation. It's one of the bitter ironies of this war-battered Balkan nation. (Serbianna; Friday, July 07, 2006)

Directories
Nikola Tesla (http://www.energyplanet.info/Free_Energy/Nikola_Tesla/) - A visual directory of Nikola Tesla websites. (EnergyPlanet.info)

See Also
Directory:Nikola Tesla
- PowerPedia main index
- PESWiki home page
- PES Network, Inc. (http:pureenergysystems.com)
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Categories: Nikola Tesla